New laws including the Election Campaign Act (1974), the War Powers Act (1973), the Privacy Act (1974) and the Congressional Budget Control Act (1974)

New laws including the Election Campaign Act (1974), the War Powers Act (1973), the Privacy Act (1974) and the Congressional Budget Control Act (1974). 

After Nixon's resignation, Congress decided the pass through laws to limit the powers of the President in the wake of the Watergate scandal. These were:

• Election Campaign Act (1974): set limits to presidential campaign budgets.
• War Powers Act (1973): meant the president couldn't go to war without the support of Congress.
• Privacy Act (1974): set regulations and rules on how the government collected information about people.
• Congressional Budget Control Act (1974): controlled the president's use of government money.

These were all passed in order to prevent future presidents from exploiting different things while in office.

Phyllis Schafly and opposition to the women’s movement

Phyllis Schafly and opposition to the women’s movement.

1. Conservative activist Phyllis Schlafly organised a group called STOP (Stop Taking Our Privileges) to campaign against the ERA; she very actively fought against the women's rights movement along with many women who wanted to return to more "traditional" femininity.
2. Phyllis argued that the ERA would take away rights that many women desired (e.g. exemption from army conscription) and that many poorer women that wanted to be wives and have children would be disadvantaged by it. Her campaign convinced enough states that there was considerable opposition to the ERA - only 30 states signed ratified it - not reaching the 3/4 of states that the amendment needed to be passed.

Betty Friedan, Eleanor Roosevelt, NOW, women’s liberation movement and abortion

Betty Friedan, Eleanor Roosevelt, NOW, women’s liberation movement and abortion.

1. Betty Friedan wrote "The Feminine Mystique" in 1963, which criticised the isolation of women in the household and revealed that many American women were dissatisfied.  
2. Friedan co-founded the National Organisation for Women (NOW), founded in 1966, and campaigned for women's legal, educational and professional equality. The organisation pressured Congress to pass the Equal Rights Amendment (1972) but failed to achieve ratification by the necessary 3/4 of states. 
3. Feminists during this time were fighting against the objectification of women. For example, they protested against the Miss America beauty pageant in 1968, crowning a sheep as their own "Miss America", comparing women's treatment in the US to livestock.
4. Abortion was and still is a very controversial issue. Feminists argued that all women had the right to choose abortion, and the Supreme Court ruled in the case Roe v Wade (1973) that states banning abortion were unconstitutional. However, pressure from religious groups meant that Congress ended up passing the Hyde Amendment in 1976, which stopped Medicaid (medical assistance programme for the poor) from funding abortions.

The student movement, Berkeley Free Speech movement, and links to war in Vietnam, Students for a Democratic Society and ‘hippies’

The student movement, Berkeley Free Speech movement, and links to war in Vietnam, Students for a Democratic Society and ‘hippies’. 

• The 1960s brought along a decade of student protest and discontent among youth, protesting in favour of things such as black rights and the end of the Vietnam War.

1. The Berkley Free Speech movement was a student protest which took place from the years 1964-65 at the University of California, Berkeley. The protest was against the ban on on-campus political activities and against the notion that universities weren't allowing free speech among students. It resulted in over 800 students being arrested and major chaos in the area, but, university officials did end up giving in and allowing political activity on Berkeley campus, although under provisional rules. Shortly after the protest, the Vietnam Day Committee began, kickstarting the anti-Vietnam war movement.
2. The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was formed in 1959. Throughout the early 60s, many of the members fought for civil rights and trained in protest tactics. Later, as the Vietnam War continued, the SDS became a leading group for the anti-war protests. In April 1968, the SDS led a student takeover of Columbia University to protest against both segregation and the Vietnam War, lasting for 8 days and leading to 700 arrests.
3. During the 60s, many people experimented with new lifestyles that involved rock music, sexual freedom, drugs and religious experimentation - A.K.A. "hippies". Protest singers like Bob Dylan wrote songs about political issues such as the Vietnam War and civil rights movement, and events included things like the Woodstock Music Festival. By the end of the 60s, there were hippy areas in most US cities, populated by "drop-outs" from mainstream life. This didn't involve all young people, though; many young people still had traditional values. 

General reasons for the growth of protest movements

General reasons for the growth of protest movements.

During the 1960s, protests grew across the USA, and also across the world in places like Europe. This was especially common among students and youth. The reasons for this included:

• New generation: young people began to reject their parents' conservative values, with many of them growing up during the early civil rights movement's development and being more tolerant towards the issues brought up by it. The new generation began to create and experiment with a new counter-culture, which emphasised on peace and free love while fighting against injustice e.g. Vietnam war, women's rights etc.
• High expectations: people had expectations and visions of a new and prosperous USA that was to come once WW2 had ended. This prosperity really only happened to the rich and men, leaving many dissatisfied; when Kennedy was elected in 1961, he promised a fairer and more equal society - people's hopes began to go up again. These changes didn't happen - people noticed - and people protested.
• The Vietnam War: the USA entered the war in Vietnam in 1955, sparking outrage among many Americans, especially when the US' involvement in the war increased; tactics like chemical bombings were criticized by many. The American media showed images of burning villages and homeless villagers across Vietnam, shocking the public and leading to many protests against the war. The outrage was strengthened when soldiers began to come home and form groups in protest of the war, exposing the horrible things they experienced during their service.

The Black Panther movement

The Black Panther movement.

In October 1966, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton set up the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California. The party had a 10-point plan that included aims such as ending police brutality and releasing black prisoners. The group was widely publicised by the media and were notorious for their unconcealed guns and violent attitudes, working as police in many US cities and seen as more efficient than the state police by some. The Black Panthers also organised projects such as free healthcare for black people. The US government saw them as a threat as the movement was spreading rapidly - 25 US cities had Black Panther groups by 1968.

The movement encouraged lots of violence, rather than peaceful methods, across the country. 100s of riots were carried out during the years of the Black Panther's peak - the group never organised these protests, though, only encouraged others to use violence to get change, so they couldn't be prosecuted themselves for the riots.

Race riots especially in the Watts District

Race riots especially in the Watts District.

1. From 1965 onwards, there were numerous race riots, which were unorganised and usually spontaneous after an episode of police brutality or discrimination etc. These riots weren't just in response to police brutality, though, they were in response to years of frustration and anger among the Black population and little to no change, with problems of unemployment and poor services still lasting.
2. These city riots included places like New York (1964), Los Angeles (1965), Chicago and Cleveland (1966), Newark and Detroit (1967) and Washinton and Cleveland (1968). The most major riots were in the Watts district of Los Angeles lasting from 11-17 August in. It was triggered by the arrest of a young black driver for drink driving, with almost 4,000 people being arrested; thousands injured; 14,000 Californian police getting involved and 34 people dying. It left many people without jobs and services in the area, as hundreds of shops had been looted and damaged during the riots. 
3. There were many other riots on a smaller scale; over 150 cities had been reported with riots during the first 9 months of 1967.

Reasons for the growth of Black Power, Stokely Carmichael, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton

Reasons for the growth of Black Power, Stokely Carmichael, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton.

1. "Black Power" began to grow throughout the mid-60s, especially after the violence on Meredith in 1966. Black people were in search of a new political party that would take care of civil rights issues that weren't being resolved by the current government. Non-violence seemed to be losing popularity among the frustrated black population, and the South still resisted civil rights strongly - the old methods weren't working. Slogans such as "Freedom Now" changed to "Black Power".
2. In October 1966, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton set up the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California. The party had a 10-point plan that included aims such as ending police brutality and releasing black prisoners. The group was widely publicized by the media and were notorious for their unconcealed guns and violent attitudes, working as police in some US city areas. The Black Panthers also organised projects such as free healthcare for black people in poor areas.

Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam

Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam.

1. Malcolm X was a preacher for the Nation of Islam (NOI), which was a group set up in July 1930 that demonstrated against integration. Malcolm X and the NOI argued that even if segregation ended, discrimination wouldn't, and that Black people would be much better off staying segregated and living separately, although with the same facilities as whites.
2. Malcolm X was also in favour of violence in order to cause change, and that it was acceptable as people Black people that were attacked would only be harming others in self-defence. Malcolm X became the pioneer of many Black people who believed that violent action was necessary and that non-violent actions weren't working. 
3. MLK and Malcolm X had polar-opposite ideas; MLK believed in non-violent actions, X believed in violent actions; MLK believed in working with the government, X believed that the government was evil, as they were the cause of centuries of "exploitation of black people". But later, both MLK and Malcolm X changed their positions, with X leaving the NOI and becoming more open towards focusing on things such as voter registration and less towards other inequalities faced by blacks, whereas MLK began to get more frustrated with the little change that was happening, growing more impatient  - there was still the huge divide between them, though. Malcolm X was assassinated in February 1965.

Selma and Voting Rights

Selma and Voting Rights.

1. After the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964, many Southern states attempted to resist the laws that the act passed, which wasn't difficult as many of them weren't enforced and were easily bypassable, especially voter registration. This resulted in civil rights groups organising a march in Alabama, from Selma to Montgomery, to show that this was a problem. They were stopped on March 7th, 1965 and fought off with clubs and tear gas. 
2. This resulted in President Johnson passing the Voting Rights Act, which included tighter policing of polling stations to make sure everyone got a vote.

Civil rights legislation of the 1960s

Civil rights legislation of the 1960s.

• Civil Rights Act, July 1964: signed by President Johnson; the act banned discrimination in education, work and public places. The Equal Opportunities Commission began from it, which investigated discrimination; discriminatory state laws became illegal.
• Voting Rights Act, August 1965: introduced a national literacy test for blacks and whites to take when registering to vote, and also added examiners that went to polling stations to make sure blacks weren't being prevented from voting.

The Birmingham and Washington Peace Marches and the ‘dream’ speech

The Birmingham and Washington Peace Marches and the ‘dream’ speech.

MLK at the Washinton Peace March

1. In 1963, civil rights campaigners targeted Birmingham, Alabama, in protest against the fact that many Southern areas in the US had still not carried out desegregation, and also because the Chief of Birmingham's police, "Bull" Connor, had allowed the KKK to beat up freedom riders in 1961 for 15 minutes before stepping in. The march began on April 3rd, and resulted in many protesters being arrested, including Martin Luther King. A month later, 100s of child protesters, trained in non-violent tactics, began a demonstration in Birmingham, ending up with 956 of them in jail by the end of the day. The next day even more children marched - the police turned fire hoses and dogs on them to subdue them. Articles and images surrounding these events spread across the world; JFK and the USA were left embarrassed, and the Mayor ended up passing desegregation laws because of these protests.
2. The Birmingham marches gained a lot of publicity for the civil rights movement, yet Congress and Kennedy were still slow to act upon the injustice and left the Black population feeling ignored and threatened by groups like the KKK. To show how many people were in support of the movement, in August 1963 civil rights groups organised a march on Washington, with estimated numbers of up to 500,000 people showing up. This was widely reported all over the world and convinced the government to pass the Civil Rights Act in July 1964 to stop segregation. The March also set off violence against the movement; four black girls were bombed and killed in a church two weeks after the march.
3. Martins Luther King gave his famous "I have a dream" speech at the end of the march; it was so impactful that it became instantly famous and rose support for the civil rights movement hugely - the government finally saw the huge support for the movement.

Protectionist policies.

 Protectionist policies.

The US government had a policy of not interfering in business - laissez-faire - but, it made a few exceptions to the rule in the early 1920s, hoping to secure the American economy's independence:

• Emergency Tariff Act, May 1921: heightened import taxes on sugar, meat, wool, and wheat, among others.
• Budget and Accounting Act, June 1921: put control on government spendings.
• Revenue Act, November 1921: cut tax for individuals, but raised business tax.
• Fordney and McCumber Tariff Act, September 1922: extended tariffs and made them higher - plus gave the President the power to raise tariffs annually, so they were in line with the selling price of these goods.

These acts actually made US exports less popular, as other countries introduced their own tariffs and American exports became very expensive. It did get Americans to buy more of their own country's goods, though.

The influence of Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Du Bois

The influence of Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Du Bois. 

W.E.D. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey fought for the same group of people - Black people - but both wanted different things. W.E.D. Du Bois called for integration of Black people.. but Marcus Garvey called for the separation of Black people.

1. W.E.D. Du Bois help set up the Niagra Movement and NAACP, which both spoke against black discrimination. He travelled throughout the USA and educated people on the racist situation of the country, how to change it, and how most other countries didn't have such racist attitudes, showing that it was absurd that integration wasn't more common in the USA.
2. Marcus Garvey moved from Jamaica to the USA in 1916 and had set up the Universal Improvement Association (UNIA) a few years before; he was a separatist and believed that Black people would never be equal to White people in America (although he was black himself), arguing that White people dominated all over Europe. He thought all races should stay in their continent (e.g. Asians in Asia, Africans in Africa). He ended up getting a huge following even though his ideas were considered ludicrous by many; he donated to businesses that were set up by Black people across the USA. 
3. Garvey later set up the "Back to Africa" campaign, a campaign to send African Americans back to Africa, specifically Liberia. He was able to fund the travel of many people to Liberia, but the ships he used were not in good condition for the trips, and the company shut down in 1922. Garvey was later arrested for fraud and was deported back to Jamaica in 1927.

The Ku Klux Klan

The Ku Klux Klan.

1. The Ku Klux Klan is a group that was set up by a number of Southern soldiers in 1865 after being bitter in the wake of losing the Civil War. The group was especially active in the early 20th century and their aim was to stop Blacks from gaining any form of freedom, wanting the country to be a WASP (white Anglo-Saxon Protestant) nation.



Klan members

2. The group saw many people as "un-American" and that didn't fit their idea of a perfect American citizen; these included Black people, Catholics, nonWestern-European immigrants, Jewish people and left-wing political thinkers. They became very powerful, and even though they disguised their identity with white robes, many people were open about it, with some police and local government being publicly known as a Klan member - making it even harder for themselves and fellow Klan members to be prosecuted.

The Jim Crow Laws, segregation and discrimination

The Jim Crow Laws, segregation and discrimination.

A segregated White/Coloured water fountain.

1. Jim Crow laws were enforced in the South; this meant that Black Americans had to use different, and generally worse facilities than White Americans. This covered things ranging from shopping stores, buses and public toilets. The government funded black schools less, leaving them with worse facilities, and also made it so Black people had to pass very difficult literacy tests in order to vote - and even then they would receive threats from White people if they tried to vote.
2. Segregation was both a cultural and lawful thing in the South, and although there were no laws on segregation in the North, it still existed, it was just less obvious. Black people often lived together in small neighbourhoods, so schools would often be solely Black; they would usually live in the worst parts of towns; they would usually get a worse education than White people. But, there was definitely more opportunity in the North for Black people, in terms of education, jobs, and change - millions of Black people moved from the South to North in the 20s.
3. Discrimination even lead to violence, especially in the South. There were many racist groups that would terrorise, injure and even murder Black people. Lynching (group of people killing someone because of alleged crime) was especially common; whether victims were forcefully taken from a jail, or just to someone that hadn't even been charged. The anti-black groups would often beat and torture their victims, and then hang them on trees to die. Although people thought lynching only happened in the South, it actually did happen in the North too, it was just much easier to get away with it in the South.

The changing position of women, including the flappers

The changing position of women, including the flappers.

In August 1920, the 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote; women's positions began to change as women's ideas began to change.

The Flappers were a young group of women who were active throughout the 1920s. They went against tradition e.g. wore silk stockings and short dresses, not the more traditional corsets and under-clothing. Many of them did things that were considered only for men at the time, like working, smoking and drinking, and going to boxing matches and racecourses; they didn't conform to the "stay at home" mum image.

The number of women rose in some professions after the war, especially in office jobs, where it changed from 2,000,000 to 5,000,000 women workers between 1910 and 1930 - rising at the same rate as men were, in some areas. But women still felt short in a lot of areas, as most women were still only temporarily working, usually leaving work after marrying.