done

EXAMS ARE DONE EXAMS ARE DONE EXAMS ARE DONE

New laws including the Election Campaign Act (1974), the War Powers Act (1973), the Privacy Act (1974) and the Congressional Budget Control Act (1974)

New laws including the Election Campaign Act (1974), the War Powers Act (1973), the Privacy Act (1974) and the Congressional Budget Control Act (1974). 

After Nixon's resignation, Congress decided the pass through laws to limit the powers of the President in the wake of the Watergate scandal. These were:

• Election Campaign Act (1974): set limits to presidential campaign budgets.
• War Powers Act (1973): meant the president couldn't go to war without the support of Congress.
• Privacy Act (1974): set regulations and rules on how the government collected information about people.
• Congressional Budget Control Act (1974): controlled the president's use of government money.

These were all passed in order to prevent future presidents from exploiting different things while in office.

Phyllis Schafly and opposition to the women’s movement

Phyllis Schafly and opposition to the women’s movement.

1. Conservative activist Phyllis Schlafly organised a group called STOP (Stop Taking Our Privileges) to campaign against the ERA; she very actively fought against the women's rights movement along with many women who wanted to return to more "traditional" femininity.
2. Phyllis argued that the ERA would take away rights that many women desired (e.g. exemption from army conscription) and that many poorer women that wanted to be wives and have children would be disadvantaged by it. Her campaign convinced enough states that there was considerable opposition to the ERA - only 30 states signed ratified it - not reaching the 3/4 of states that the amendment needed to be passed.

Betty Friedan, Eleanor Roosevelt, NOW, women’s liberation movement and abortion

Betty Friedan, Eleanor Roosevelt, NOW, women’s liberation movement and abortion.

1. Betty Friedan wrote "The Feminine Mystique" in 1963, which criticised the isolation of women in the household and revealed that many American women were dissatisfied.  
2. Friedan co-founded the National Organisation for Women (NOW), founded in 1966, and campaigned for women's legal, educational and professional equality. The organisation pressured Congress to pass the Equal Rights Amendment (1972) but failed to achieve ratification by the necessary 3/4 of states. 
3. Feminists during this time were fighting against the objectification of women. For example, they protested against the Miss America beauty pageant in 1968, crowning a sheep as their own "Miss America", comparing women's treatment in the US to livestock.
4. Abortion was and still is a very controversial issue. Feminists argued that all women had the right to choose abortion, and the Supreme Court ruled in the case Roe v Wade (1973) that states banning abortion were unconstitutional. However, pressure from religious groups meant that Congress ended up passing the Hyde Amendment in 1976, which stopped Medicaid (medical assistance programme for the poor) from funding abortions.

The student movement, Berkeley Free Speech movement, and links to war in Vietnam, Students for a Democratic Society and ‘hippies’

The student movement, Berkeley Free Speech movement, and links to war in Vietnam, Students for a Democratic Society and ‘hippies’. 

• The 1960s brought along a decade of student protest and discontent among youth, protesting in favour of things such as black rights and the end of the Vietnam War.

1. The Berkley Free Speech movement was a student protest which took place from the years 1964-65 at the University of California, Berkeley. The protest was against the ban on on-campus political activities and against the notion that universities weren't allowing free speech among students. It resulted in over 800 students being arrested and major chaos in the area, but, university officials did end up giving in and allowing political activity on Berkeley campus, although under provisional rules. Shortly after the protest, the Vietnam Day Committee began, kickstarting the anti-Vietnam war movement.
2. The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was formed in 1959. Throughout the early 60s, many of the members fought for civil rights and trained in protest tactics. Later, as the Vietnam War continued, the SDS became a leading group for the anti-war protests. In April 1968, the SDS led a student takeover of Columbia University to protest against both segregation and the Vietnam War, lasting for 8 days and leading to 700 arrests.
3. During the 60s, many people experimented with new lifestyles that involved rock music, sexual freedom, drugs and religious experimentation - A.K.A. "hippies". Protest singers like Bob Dylan wrote songs about political issues such as the Vietnam War and civil rights movement, and events included things like the Woodstock Music Festival. By the end of the 60s, there were hippy areas in most US cities, populated by "drop-outs" from mainstream life. This didn't involve all young people, though; many young people still had traditional values. 

General reasons for the growth of protest movements

General reasons for the growth of protest movements.

During the 1960s, protests grew across the USA, and also across the world in places like Europe. This was especially common among students and youth. The reasons for this included:

• New generation: young people began to reject their parents' conservative values, with many of them growing up during the early civil rights movement's development and being more tolerant towards the issues brought up by it. The new generation began to create and experiment with a new counter-culture, which emphasised on peace and free love while fighting against injustice e.g. Vietnam war, women's rights etc.
• High expectations: people had expectations and visions of a new and prosperous USA that was to come once WW2 had ended. This prosperity really only happened to the rich and men, leaving many dissatisfied; when Kennedy was elected in 1961, he promised a fairer and more equal society - people's hopes began to go up again. These changes didn't happen - people noticed - and people protested.
• The Vietnam War: the USA entered the war in Vietnam in 1955, sparking outrage among many Americans, especially when the US' involvement in the war increased; tactics like chemical bombings were criticized by many. The American media showed images of burning villages and homeless villagers across Vietnam, shocking the public and leading to many protests against the war. The outrage was strengthened when soldiers began to come home and form groups in protest of the war, exposing the horrible things they experienced during their service.

The Black Panther movement

The Black Panther movement.

In October 1966, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton set up the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California. The party had a 10-point plan that included aims such as ending police brutality and releasing black prisoners. The group was widely publicised by the media and were notorious for their unconcealed guns and violent attitudes, working as police in many US cities and seen as more efficient than the state police by some. The Black Panthers also organised projects such as free healthcare for black people. The US government saw them as a threat as the movement was spreading rapidly - 25 US cities had Black Panther groups by 1968.

The movement encouraged lots of violence, rather than peaceful methods, across the country. 100s of riots were carried out during the years of the Black Panther's peak - the group never organised these protests, though, only encouraged others to use violence to get change, so they couldn't be prosecuted themselves for the riots.

Race riots especially in the Watts District

Race riots especially in the Watts District.

1. From 1965 onwards, there were numerous race riots, which were unorganised and usually spontaneous after an episode of police brutality or discrimination etc. These riots weren't just in response to police brutality, though, they were in response to years of frustration and anger among the Black population and little to no change, with problems of unemployment and poor services still lasting.
2. These city riots included places like New York (1964), Los Angeles (1965), Chicago and Cleveland (1966), Newark and Detroit (1967) and Washinton and Cleveland (1968). The most major riots were in the Watts district of Los Angeles lasting from 11-17 August in. It was triggered by the arrest of a young black driver for drink driving, with almost 4,000 people being arrested; thousands injured; 14,000 Californian police getting involved and 34 people dying. It left many people without jobs and services in the area, as hundreds of shops had been looted and damaged during the riots. 
3. There were many other riots on a smaller scale; over 150 cities had been reported with riots during the first 9 months of 1967.

Reasons for the growth of Black Power, Stokely Carmichael, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton

Reasons for the growth of Black Power, Stokely Carmichael, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton.

1. "Black Power" began to grow throughout the mid-60s, especially after the violence on Meredith in 1966. Black people were in search of a new political party that would take care of civil rights issues that weren't being resolved by the current government. Non-violence seemed to be losing popularity among the frustrated black population, and the South still resisted civil rights strongly - the old methods weren't working. Slogans such as "Freedom Now" changed to "Black Power".
2. In October 1966, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton set up the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California. The party had a 10-point plan that included aims such as ending police brutality and releasing black prisoners. The group was widely publicized by the media and were notorious for their unconcealed guns and violent attitudes, working as police in some US city areas. The Black Panthers also organised projects such as free healthcare for black people in poor areas.

Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam

Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam.

1. Malcolm X was a preacher for the Nation of Islam (NOI), which was a group set up in July 1930 that demonstrated against integration. Malcolm X and the NOI argued that even if segregation ended, discrimination wouldn't, and that Black people would be much better off staying segregated and living separately, although with the same facilities as whites.
2. Malcolm X was also in favour of violence in order to cause change, and that it was acceptable as people Black people that were attacked would only be harming others in self-defence. Malcolm X became the pioneer of many Black people who believed that violent action was necessary and that non-violent actions weren't working. 
3. MLK and Malcolm X had polar-opposite ideas; MLK believed in non-violent actions, X believed in violent actions; MLK believed in working with the government, X believed that the government was evil, as they were the cause of centuries of "exploitation of black people". But later, both MLK and Malcolm X changed their positions, with X leaving the NOI and becoming more open towards focusing on things such as voter registration and less towards other inequalities faced by blacks, whereas MLK began to get more frustrated with the little change that was happening, growing more impatient  - there was still the huge divide between them, though. Malcolm X was assassinated in February 1965.

Selma and Voting Rights

Selma and Voting Rights.

1. After the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964, many Southern states attempted to resist the laws that the act passed, which wasn't difficult as many of them weren't enforced and were easily bypassable, especially voter registration. This resulted in civil rights groups organising a march in Alabama, from Selma to Montgomery, to show that this was a problem. They were stopped on March 7th, 1965 and fought off with clubs and tear gas. 
2. This resulted in President Johnson passing the Voting Rights Act, which included tighter policing of polling stations to make sure everyone got a vote.

Civil rights legislation of the 1960s

Civil rights legislation of the 1960s.

• Civil Rights Act, July 1964: signed by President Johnson; the act banned discrimination in education, work and public places. The Equal Opportunities Commission began from it, which investigated discrimination; discriminatory state laws became illegal.
• Voting Rights Act, August 1965: introduced a national literacy test for blacks and whites to take when registering to vote, and also added examiners that went to polling stations to make sure blacks weren't being prevented from voting.

The Birmingham and Washington Peace Marches and the ‘dream’ speech

The Birmingham and Washington Peace Marches and the ‘dream’ speech.

MLK at the Washinton Peace March

1. In 1963, civil rights campaigners targeted Birmingham, Alabama, in protest against the fact that many Southern areas in the US had still not carried out desegregation, and also because the Chief of Birmingham's police, "Bull" Connor, had allowed the KKK to beat up freedom riders in 1961 for 15 minutes before stepping in. The march began on April 3rd, and resulted in many protesters being arrested, including Martin Luther King. A month later, 100s of child protesters, trained in non-violent tactics, began a demonstration in Birmingham, ending up with 956 of them in jail by the end of the day. The next day even more children marched - the police turned fire hoses and dogs on them to subdue them. Articles and images surrounding these events spread across the world; JFK and the USA were left embarrassed, and the Mayor ended up passing desegregation laws because of these protests.
2. The Birmingham marches gained a lot of publicity for the civil rights movement, yet Congress and Kennedy were still slow to act upon the injustice and left the Black population feeling ignored and threatened by groups like the KKK. To show how many people were in support of the movement, in August 1963 civil rights groups organised a march on Washington, with estimated numbers of up to 500,000 people showing up. This was widely reported all over the world and convinced the government to pass the Civil Rights Act in July 1964 to stop segregation. The March also set off violence against the movement; four black girls were bombed and killed in a church two weeks after the march.
3. Martins Luther King gave his famous "I have a dream" speech at the end of the march; it was so impactful that it became instantly famous and rose support for the civil rights movement hugely - the government finally saw the huge support for the movement.

Protectionist policies.

 Protectionist policies.

The US government had a policy of not interfering in business - laissez-faire - but, it made a few exceptions to the rule in the early 1920s, hoping to secure the American economy's independence:

• Emergency Tariff Act, May 1921: heightened import taxes on sugar, meat, wool, and wheat, among others.
• Budget and Accounting Act, June 1921: put control on government spendings.
• Revenue Act, November 1921: cut tax for individuals, but raised business tax.
• Fordney and McCumber Tariff Act, September 1922: extended tariffs and made them higher - plus gave the President the power to raise tariffs annually, so they were in line with the selling price of these goods.

These acts actually made US exports less popular, as other countries introduced their own tariffs and American exports became very expensive. It did get Americans to buy more of their own country's goods, though.

The influence of Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Du Bois

The influence of Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Du Bois. 

W.E.D. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey fought for the same group of people - Black people - but both wanted different things. W.E.D. Du Bois called for integration of Black people.. but Marcus Garvey called for the separation of Black people.

1. W.E.D. Du Bois help set up the Niagra Movement and NAACP, which both spoke against black discrimination. He travelled throughout the USA and educated people on the racist situation of the country, how to change it, and how most other countries didn't have such racist attitudes, showing that it was absurd that integration wasn't more common in the USA.
2. Marcus Garvey moved from Jamaica to the USA in 1916 and had set up the Universal Improvement Association (UNIA) a few years before; he was a separatist and believed that Black people would never be equal to White people in America (although he was black himself), arguing that White people dominated all over Europe. He thought all races should stay in their continent (e.g. Asians in Asia, Africans in Africa). He ended up getting a huge following even though his ideas were considered ludicrous by many; he donated to businesses that were set up by Black people across the USA. 
3. Garvey later set up the "Back to Africa" campaign, a campaign to send African Americans back to Africa, specifically Liberia. He was able to fund the travel of many people to Liberia, but the ships he used were not in good condition for the trips, and the company shut down in 1922. Garvey was later arrested for fraud and was deported back to Jamaica in 1927.

The Ku Klux Klan

The Ku Klux Klan.

1. The Ku Klux Klan is a group that was set up by a number of Southern soldiers in 1865 after being bitter in the wake of losing the Civil War. The group was especially active in the early 20th century and their aim was to stop Blacks from gaining any form of freedom, wanting the country to be a WASP (white Anglo-Saxon Protestant) nation.



Klan members

2. The group saw many people as "un-American" and that didn't fit their idea of a perfect American citizen; these included Black people, Catholics, nonWestern-European immigrants, Jewish people and left-wing political thinkers. They became very powerful, and even though they disguised their identity with white robes, many people were open about it, with some police and local government being publicly known as a Klan member - making it even harder for themselves and fellow Klan members to be prosecuted.

The Jim Crow Laws, segregation and discrimination

The Jim Crow Laws, segregation and discrimination.

A segregated White/Coloured water fountain.

1. Jim Crow laws were enforced in the South; this meant that Black Americans had to use different, and generally worse facilities than White Americans. This covered things ranging from shopping stores, buses and public toilets. The government funded black schools less, leaving them with worse facilities, and also made it so Black people had to pass very difficult literacy tests in order to vote - and even then they would receive threats from White people if they tried to vote.
2. Segregation was both a cultural and lawful thing in the South, and although there were no laws on segregation in the North, it still existed, it was just less obvious. Black people often lived together in small neighbourhoods, so schools would often be solely Black; they would usually live in the worst parts of towns; they would usually get a worse education than White people. But, there was definitely more opportunity in the North for Black people, in terms of education, jobs, and change - millions of Black people moved from the South to North in the 20s.
3. Discrimination even lead to violence, especially in the South. There were many racist groups that would terrorise, injure and even murder Black people. Lynching (group of people killing someone because of alleged crime) was especially common; whether victims were forcefully taken from a jail, or just to someone that hadn't even been charged. The anti-black groups would often beat and torture their victims, and then hang them on trees to die. Although people thought lynching only happened in the South, it actually did happen in the North too, it was just much easier to get away with it in the South.

The changing position of women, including the flappers

The changing position of women, including the flappers.

In August 1920, the 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote; women's positions began to change as women's ideas began to change.

The Flappers were a young group of women who were active throughout the 1920s. They went against tradition e.g. wore silk stockings and short dresses, not the more traditional corsets and under-clothing. Many of them did things that were considered only for men at the time, like working, smoking and drinking, and going to boxing matches and racecourses; they didn't conform to the "stay at home" mum image.

The number of women rose in some professions after the war, especially in office jobs, where it changed from 2,000,000 to 5,000,000 women workers between 1910 and 1930 - rising at the same rate as men were, in some areas. But women still felt short in a lot of areas, as most women were still only temporarily working, usually leaving work after marrying.

High-tech warfare

High-tech warfare.

1. The First Gulf War began the use of high-tech warfare, introducing laser-guided smart bombs - though were mainly defective, with only about 9% of the bombs used being smart bombs.
2. In terms of more modern high-tech warfare - it consists of mainly computerized and technical weapons e.g. night vision, drones and unmanned vehicles. This includes unmanned aerial vehicles, with high-quality cameras and extremely accurate missiles, fired from control stations.
3. Although there has been a lot of high-tech weapons made, with some deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan, it hasn't taken away from the importance and dependence of conventional weapons and ground troops in war, show by both the Gulf Wars.

Impact of terrorism, especially 9/11

Impact of terrorism, especially 9/11.

World Trade Center on September 11th 2001.

Terrorism greatly increased as a form of warfare following the middle of the twentieth century up until now. It is a strategic use of terror by the use of violent acts or coercion at targeted areas considered safe by the public. 9/11 is the most significant terrorist attack to this date and still has effects to this day. This attack triggered the "War on Terror", which included the invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban, known al-Qaeda sympathisers; and the Second Gulf War, as the US, among others, thought that Saddam Hussein supported al-Qaeda along with terrorism in general.

Continuing importance of conventional warfare

Continuing importance of conventional warfare.

Conventional warfare still played a role in 21st-century wars such as the Second Gulf War (March 20, 2003 - May 1, 2003), which was an invasion of Iraq by the US, backed by Britain, in 2003. The coalition victory (of US, UK, Australia etc.) was significant as it was due to the deployment of conventional forces and traditional tactics of the second half of the twentieth century. The coalition used air attacks to soften up the Iraqi resitance and support the invasion of land forces.

Emergence of submarines and military aircraft – fighter and bomber planes

Emergence of submarines and military aircraft – fighter and bomber planes.

1. First introduced in 1915, submarines were used a lot during WW1 and 2; U-boats were German submarines that were very effective, able to sink five British cruisers within 10 weeks and were responsible for the loss of 11 million tonnes of allied shipping during the War. Submarine warfare developed significantly during WW2, with the Allies having to adapt to Germany's effective strategies; the Germans used wolf-pack tactics (attacking in big groups) and the U-boats remained successful during early WW2, until.
2. WW1 introduced the first time that aircraft had been used on a large scale. Germany employed Zeppelins for strategic raids over England and the Eastern Front. Aircraft was even more decisive in WW2, with the introduction of Blitzkrieg tactics during the Invasion of Poland and Battle of France, where aircraft worked as flying artillery to quickly disrupt defensive formations.

Methods of warfare including gas, tanks and heavy artillery

Methods of warfare including gas, tanks and heavy artillery.

1. Tanks were introduced by the British during WW1 - hoping that they would be able to crush barbed wire and protect troops from machine gun fire. Tanks were heavily used during Blitzkrieg tactics, most notably by the Nazis, and helped Blitzkrieg become a completely unexpected and new form of warfare. They were the most significant weapon during the time and affected land warfare greatly, providing protection and confidence for troops and being able to travel through almost anything
2. Gas was used a lot during WW1; mostly mustard gas, chlorine, and phosgene. Mustard gas was the most effective, and after Germany had attempted with other gasses they realised that mustard gas was the hardest to detect, and so had the best effect on opponents. Burns from mustard gas were so bad that the result would mean that the soldier likely wouldn't be able to fight again - most of the mustard gas victims died after the attack from secondary infections. Gas was mainly used for physical harm as well as psychological effects, with soldiers always living in fear of a gas attack - only around 3,000 Brits actually died from gas attacks. 
3. Heavy artillery was very important in trench warfare, with infantry attacks rarely being successful if out of range of its artillery. Artillery was used to bombard the enemy infantry in the trenches - mainly firing high explosives, fragmentation, and sometimes gas shells. Heavy artillery was used to fight Blitzkrieg tactics against the Germans in WW2 - heavy guns were used to protect important harbours and coastal areas, usually unable to cope against modern warships and aircraft; the field gun was used by major armies, firing short but heavy shells.

The leisure industry, cinema, Jazz, dancing, sport, radio, advertising and motoring, morals and values and the ‘Monkey Trial’

The leisure industry, cinema, Jazz, dancing, sport, radio, advertising and motoring, morals and values and the ‘Monkey Trial’.

The leisure industry boomed in the 1920s, undergoing huge changes.

1. People simply had more money to spend on leisure during the 20s. Film became the standard form of entertainment across the country - making itself a multi-million dollar industry. Enormous movie theatres were built which could seat as many as 4,000 people. Movies were silent all the way up until the first "talking" picture was made in 1927. Hollywood was the major film-making centre.
2. Jazz music travelled across the US in the 1920s. The style originated from black people, who migrated from the South of the country to the North, spreading the music, as well as the dances (e.g. the Charleston) that came along with the genre - which many considered wild and untraditional. Jazz music began to sell in record form and was performed in clubs across the country, earning large amounts of money and symbolising a new era of freedom to many Americans.
3. Advertising became a huge industry, with billboards, newspapers and magazines spreading across the USA, with the advertisements urging people to spend their money on the newest products. Advertising was extremely successful as people were more willing to spend money at this time, and were more inclined to buy something more expensive due to hire purchase and good times for the economy. 
4. During the 1920s, six US states had banned the teaching of evolution in schools. One of these states was Tennessee, where biology teacher John Scopes taught his pupils the ideas behind evolution. Many Americans were very angry and launched an attack on Scopes and the ideas he taught - with books and publications about evolution eventually being banned in several states. The case went to court, ending up with Scopes being found guilty and fined $100, and with many people outside of the bible belt being shocked at the verdict and response.

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The methods and activities of Martin Luther King

The methods and activities of Martin Luther King.

1. King was influenced by Gandhi, who used non-violent civil disobedience against the British in India. He knew publicly, although non-violently calling the USA out on their hypocrisy would make them look bad.
2. His methods included picketing (standing outside a segregated establishment and telling people not to use it), boycotts, sit-ins, jail-ins (purposely getting arrested until the jails were completely full) and mass marches.
3. King was an influential speaker and was able to convince many people to join his cause because of this. MLK made sure that all of his supporters were non-violent at all times so that it was clear to the public as to who the victims were in the movement. All of his methods were legal.
4. Martin Luther King was one of the only Black leaders of the Civil Rights Movement that was able to appeal to White politicians due to his peaceful methods, and his success at making his opponents look bad and his supporters look good.
5. King was assassinated by a white gunman on April 4, 1968, sparking 100s of extremely violent protests across the US.

The decline of older industries

The decline of older industries.

1. Older industries suffered throughout the 1920s, especially the coal industry.
2. The coal industry suffered from competition with oil. This came from the motor industry, as cars began to take over as the new form of transportation, replacing trains, which was what a lot of coal was being used for. 10% less coal was mined in 1929 than in 1919. Technology was also being introduced that could replace workers, and remaining workers had decreased wages. Mining towns suffered the most from this.
3. The wool industry also collapsed. The most damaging part of this was when the boll weevil (cotton feeding beetle) destroyed 30% of cotton crops. After recovering in the mid-20s, the opposite, over-production, caused prices to drop dramatically.

Problems in farming, including over-production and mechanisation

Problems in farming, including over-production and mechanisation.

1. During the war, farmers became used to growing as many crops as possible. But during the 1920s, they grew more food than was needed (over-production), leading to falling prices and falling profits - which was also worsened by rising taxes, mortgages and wages.
2. Some other countries like the UK, Russia and Canada were able to recover from the war and become foreign competition for the US in terms of agriculture.
3. The Republican government didn't allow the government to buy up farmers' crops as President Coolidge thought it would encourage further over-production.
4. The US farm population began to shrink for the first time in history - not everyone was prospering in the 20s.

Hire purchase, consumerism and the popularity of the stock market

Hire purchase, consumerism and the popularity of the stock market.

1. Hire purchase is the system in which someone pays for regular instalments of something. It encouraged people to buy more luxury goods such as cars, as even average earners could buy them with credit, and weren't worried about having to keep up the payments because times were good. 
2. Consumerism is the culture around the buying and selling of products. This increased as Americans had more leisure time and were eager to spend money on the newest and most advertised products such as radios, telephones and washing machines.
3. The stock market boomed during the 1920s due to over 1 million Americans buying shares during the time. Before the Wall Street Crash when this was a bad thing, people were fully investing in the boom, and taking advantage of the production and consumption through shares.

Henry Ford and mass production

Henry Ford and mass production.

Henry Ford created the mass production car company, Ford, which introduced a new and efficient way of manufacturing.

1. Henry Ford's factories used the assembly line system, which divided manufacturing tasks among groups of workers spaced alongside a moving belt. This increased production efficiency, which, in turn, decreased car prices dramatically. 
2. Cars began to become much more affordable, with the standard model costing around $300 ($4000 today).
3. The jobs of 1 in 12 people were linked to car production, and, by 1929, there was once car for every five Americans.
4. Car production helped the economy greatly, and boosted other industries such as steel, petrol, chemical, glass and rubber industries.

Reasons for economic boom in the 1920s

Reasons for economic boom in the 1920s

There was a huge economic boom in the USA during the 1920s, with income and living standards rising, giving the period the name the "Roaring Twenties".

1. The rise of advertising brought more spending and became its own business, expanding to radio and movie ads.
2. Low unemployment, inflation and interest rates meant that people were more willing to spend.
3. Everyday items such as washing machines, TVs and refrigerators were now affordable for many people - bringing a consumer boom.
4. The Republican government reduced income tax and left people with more money to spend, contributing to prosperity.

Importance of aircraft in Arab-Israeli Wars and first Gulf War

Importance of aircraft in Arab-Israeli Wars and first Gulf War.

-The Six Day War 1967:

1. Air power proved to be decisive in the Six Day War. The eventual Israeli victory was mainly down to control of the air which, in turn, was due to the actions of the Israeli air force on the first day of the war (5th June 1967).
2. Although Israel's first and most critical attack was on Egyptian Air Force, which had by far a much more modern and large air force than other Arab air forces; Israel was able to catch them off-guard, with a surprise pre-emptive attack.
3. That afternoon, attacks on Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi air fields were carried out by Israel, wiping out most of those nations' air forces, with all of the Jordanian air force being wiped out by the end of the first day. Israeli Blitzkrieg tanks, supported by the air force, were then able to  carry out enemy attacks without fear from the air.
4. By the end of the six days (5-10 June), Israel had defeated their Arab neighbours using Blitzkrieg tactics from WW2, with more modern tanks and aircraft. The Israelis used speed and surprise, attacking without warning, equipped with the most up to date tanks supplied by the USA. They used careful planning which ensured control of the air and the effective use of tank warfare, ideal for areas of the Sinai and Golan Heights.

-The First Gulf War:

1. Stage 1 of the war was an air offensive against Iraq, launched on 16th January 1991, lasting nearly a month. In a short time, a variety of aircraft, including Stealth aircraft, cruise missiles and precision-guided weapons seriously damaged Iraq's military and economic structure.
2. Stage 2 was Operation Desert Saber which was launched 23rd February 1991. Land forces advanced into Kuwait and liberated the country within 4 days.
3. The air war began 17th January 1991, with the plan to carry out strategic bombing, gain air superiority, bomb the Iraq artillery, and then finally launch a ground offensive.
4. Weapons such as smart bombs were used, although they weren't overly accurate e.g. the F-117 had a hit rate of 55% while the older F-111 hit the target 70% of the time with laser guided bombs.
5. The most important part was the ground offensive - only ground forces can take and hold ground, although airpower was still vital in softening up Iraqi trenches and forces, it is nearly impossible to destroy an opponent without ground troops.
6. Complete air dominance, which is very rare, was soon won - even vulnerable aircraft were able to roam the air. This is what is called deep battle, where due to modern weapons with extended range, an attack does not just attack the enemy front lines, but his whole military organisations, his front, his art, his reserves and his C&C, without which his troops are blind and helpless.

The Battle of Britain, the Blitz, V weapons and the allied bombing of Germany

The Battle of Britain, the Blitz, V weapons and the allied bombing of Germany.

1. In June 1940, Germany attempted to invade Britain in the Battle of Britain. Air power was decisive in preventing the invasion, as the Luftwaffe (German air force) needed to gain control of the air over the English Channel and southern England in order to protect their sea power and make way for their landings. To do this they needed to destroy the RAF and other British airfields, which they weren't able to do. The British were able to win because they had plenty of factories to replace destroyed aircraft; the British radar was able to locate German attacks; they were fighting in their own territory, so surviving British pilots that were shot down could go back to war, but German pilots were arrested; the Germans decided to bomb British cities towards the end of the war, keeping the British' air control of the English Channel while the Germans were pre-occupied.
2. The Blitz was Germany's consistent air bombing campaign against Britain during WW2. The raids killed 43,000 civilians and lasted for 8 months, petering out when Hitler changed his focus towards his upcoming invasion of Russia in May 1941. It was described as the "Blitz" (lightning) because of the extremely heavy and relentless bombing raids that were carried out. The Battle of Britain wasn't going well for Germany before the Blitz, so they decided to rapidly attack British cities in an attempt to "soften up" the British people and destroy their confidence before Germany's full invasion - dropping over 5,000 tonnes of explosives on London within the first month. Between the month of September 1940 and May 1941, London was attacked 71 times, Birmingham, Liverpool, and Plymouth 8 times, Bristol 6, Glasgow 5, Southampton 4 and Portsmouth and Hull 3.
3. Although the Blitz had ended because of focus drifting to the Russian invasion, the British people ended up suffering through a second Blitz in the final war years, from V-1 and V-2 weapons. The V-1 was a flying bomb, and the V-2 a supersonic missile, which were both fired from Nazi-occupied Europe onto the south of England during 1944-45 and killed nearly 9,000 people. The V-2 was more dangerous than the V-1 because of its sheer speed, meaning that it couldn't be seen or tracked before it could be shot down. However, it was too late in the war for it to have any impact on war outcome. But, the V-1 was more cost effective, as it made the Allies spend heavily on defence and towards diverting the missiles.



Birmingham after an air raid.

4. German people still had hope and high spirits due to the Nazis pretending that they were winning the war through propaganda - the Allies wanted to end this. The Allies intensively bombed Germany's largest cities in May 1943, including Berlin, Cologne and Hamburg. Approximately 800,000 civilians were killed, and left many people fleeing to the countryside (village populations increased substantially), people sharing their homes, and opened German's eyes to see that they were losing the war. However, some of the bombing campaign has been criticized, as cities such as Dresden, with no military importance, were targeted - only further uniting the German people and rising determination.

Nuclear submarines

Nuclear submarines.

Nuclear submarines played a big part in the Cold War between the USA and USSR and underwent many changes in the years succeeding WW2.

1. The USA were the first to develop nuclear-powered submarines with the launch of the USS Nautilus in January 1952. The Soviets developed their own within the next ten years.
2. Nuclear submarines work on nuclear technology, unlike conventional diesel powered submarines. Because of this, they were armed with powerful WMD, and the development of cruise missiles gave nuclear submarines a long-range ability to attack both sea and land targets using weapons such as nuclear weapons and cluster bombs.
3. Disadvantages of nuclear submarines include dangers of operating them, especially for long periods of time under the ocean: in 1963, the US Navy lost 16 officers, 96 enlisted men and 21 civilians on board the USS Thresher after the captain reported having problems.
4. But, they have many advantages over the conventional diesel submarines, ranging from the fact that they rarely need refueling, and can run at high speeds for a very long time because of the huge power generated by the nuclear reactor; they can force and enemy to waste their resources due to how long they can last and how powerful and strong they are.

The development of the aircraft carrier and its importance in the War in the Pacific 1941-45 and the Falklands War

The development of the aircraft carrier and its importance in the War in the Pacific 1941-45 and the Falklands War.

1. The aircraft carrier began development during early WW2 when the British used the Swordfish aircraft carrier against the Italians in the Battle of Taranto, damaging three Italian battleships and ending Italian naval power. The Japanese observed this and used similar tactics at Pearl Harbor over a year later. In the later 1940s, the slanted deck was introduced, giving carriers two runways from which to conduct operations. The first nuclear carrier, USS Enterprise, was launched in 1961.
2. The War in the Pacific, a war between the USA and Japan, proved the importance of aircraft carriers in naval conflicts. Control of the pacific area was dependent on the air, which, in turn, meant that the side that used their aircraft carrier fleet more effectively gained the advantage. 
3. The Falkland Wars in 1982 was a war between the UK and Argentina which began when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands. The war relied heavily on sea power and used two aircraft carriers, Invincible and Hermes, which both served as floating airfields and helped the British aircraft make quick escapes back to safety. The carriers also protected the landings of the British troops when they landed on the invaded islands. The British nuclear submarine, HMS Conquerer, sank the Argentinian cruiser General Belgrano, forcing the Argentine Navy to withdraw for the most part.

The Battle of the Atlantic and developments in U-boat warfare

The Battle of the Atlantic and developments in U-boat warfare.

German U-boat

1. The Battle of the Atlantic was a long battle lasting throughout the majority of the Second World War between the Allies and Germany.
2. Germans very effectively used U-boat warfare throughout the years 1939-42, giving them the upper-hand, sinking 1000 ships and a quarter of Britain's merchant fleet by 1940. By January 1943, the navy only had two months worth of oil supplies left.
3. The Germans used "wolf pack" tactics. They had cracked the Allies' code so were able to wait with U-boats for Atlantic convoys to arrive, attacking in numbers. The British weren't able to effectively counteract these U-boat attacks and used out-of-date escort vessels.
4. Air coverage of the Atlantic was successful in terms of attacking U-boats, but it could only stretch so far across the huge Atlantic, leaving a gap in the Atlantic ocean without air coverage, where lots of the U-boat attacks took place.
5. U-boats were able to remain undetected by ASDIC -the British anti-submarine device - which relied on soundwaves travelling through the ocean. This was because the Germans attacked at the surface and at night. But, the entry of the USA into the war in 1941 meant that U-boat commanders had many more targets.
6. Churchill began putting priority towards destroying U-boats during 1942, resulting in more U-boats being sunk and reducing Allied shipping losses. Between June-December 1943, the Germans lost 141 U-boats whilst the Allies only lost 57 ships. Admiral Donitz, the German U-boat commander, was unable to replace the sunken U-boats and, in March 1944, called off The Battle of the Atlantic.
7. The Allies were able to gain success by using long range aircraft to protect convoys; decoding German radio messages and being able to tell where U-boat packs would be; improved training for convoys and getting better escort vessels; the Americans were able to build ships faster than the Germans could sink them.

The growth of opposition to Hitler including the Edelweiss Pirates, the White Rose Group and the Stauffenberg Plot

The growth of opposition to Hitler including the Edelweiss Pirates, the White Rose Group and the Stauffenberg Plot.

1. The Edelweiss Pirates were a group of rebellious young people that were hard to control as they weren't a single organisation with clear leaders. They had sprung up in Germany during the 1930s, with different groups of them having their own names, including Navajos and the Roving Dudes. They rejected Nazi values and hated being told what to do. They purposely avoided joining the Hitler Youth and some members deliberately got into fights with the Hitler Youth. During the 1940s, they started distributing anti-Nazi leaflets, and also helping army deserters, forced labourers and escaped concentration camp prisoners. But, the Nazis eventually tracked down the groups. Many were arrested, and in 1944, several members were publicly hanged in Cologne.
2. The White Rose Group opposed the Nazis and was led by students from Munich University between the years 1942-43. Among the leaders were siblings Hans and Sophie Scholl. The group protested against Nazi prosecution and discrimination of minorities. Some of the members had taken part in the war and were horrified by German atrocities, including the mass murder of Jews. They used peaceful/non-violent methods and distributed anti-Nazi leaflets to encourage opposition. The group were caught and arrested by the Gestapo and several members, including Hans and Sophie Scholl, were tortured and executed.
3. The Stauffenberg Plot was a bomb plot attempt to kill Hitler. Towards the end of the war, some of the German military were unhappy with Hitler's leadership, believing he would lead Germany to defeat. Claus von Stauffenberg, along with other German officers, made a plan to kill Hitler. Their aim was to kill Hitler and install a non-radical government, including members of the Kreisau Circle. The attempt was on the 20th July 1944; Stauffenberg put a bomb in a briefcase and left it in a meeting room by Hitler's chair. However, someone moved the briefcase, and Hitler was unharmed by the explosion. Most of plotters, including Stauffenberg, were then captured and executed.

The changing role of women, ‘total war’, rationing and the effects of allied bombing

The changing role of women, ‘total war’, rationing and the effects of allied bombing.

1. The Nazis wanted women's roles to change. They tried to increase the birth rate (without success) and encourage more women to go out and work (also without much success). This was the opposite of what the Nazis had been portraying through propaganda in the 1930s: women now wanted to stay at home, not work. In 1943, the Nazis tried to force 3 million German women to work, but only 1 million did - which ended up being one of the reasons for the German war defeat.
2. "Total war" was what happened when it became clear to the German people that the country did not have a guaranteed triumph in the war. Every single aspect of the German economy was then put towards the war effort - this meant that there was no longer everyday things in Germany like sweet shops; magazines and professional sports. All shops that were open were there to help the war effort, with working hours being increased and more women working in factories.
3. Rationing began at the beginning of the war, and it affected everyday life for German civilians. Only food and clothes were rationed early on in 1939, and even then it was still easy to acquire them as Germany was winning the war at the time. But, by 1942, Germans were living off a lot less that British people. Rations became increasingly scarce, and included things such as bread, potatoes and vegetables. It eventually became almost impossible to buy new clothes or shoes.
4. German people still had hope and high spirits due to the Nazis pretending that they were winning the war through propaganda - the Allies wanted to end this. The Allies intensively bombed Germany's largest cities in May 1943, including Berlin, Cologne and Hamburg. Approximately 800,000 civilians were killed, and left many people fleeing to the countryside (village populations increased substantially), people sharing their homes, and opened German's eyes to see that they were losing the war. German support began to weaken, especially in villages.

Nazi policies towards the Jews including ghettos, death squads and the Final Solution

Nazi policies towards the Jews including ghettos, death squads and the Final Solution.

1. More and more Jews came under German control during World War 2 - and from 1940, Jewish people were to move into ghettos, which were separate districts of cities policed by armed guards in a walled in area. Ghetto conditions were terrible, and starvation and disease killed thousands.
2. During Germany's invasion of Russia in 1941, soldiers were ordered to kill every Jew they found in Russian towns and villages. Following the invasion, Nazi death squads, called "Einsatzgruppen", murdered more than a million Jews in eastern Europe.
3. The Final Solution was a plan by the Nazis that began in 1942, as a resort to destroy the Jewish people. This entailed death camps being built in Eastern Europe, and gas chambers included to achieve mass murder. Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, was in overall charge of this "final solution".
4. Some of these death camps were: Auschwitz, Treblinka, Sobibor, Chelmno and Belzec.
5. By the end of the war, it is estimated that 6 million Jewish people had been killed by the Nazis.
6. Other groups that were also targeted during this time were Slavs, Romani people, black people, homosexuals, disabled people and communists - approximately 200,000 Romani people and 200,000 disabled people were killed during this time.

The Labour Service, the Labour Front and Strength Through Joy

The Labour Service, the Labour Front and Strength Through Joy.

1. The Labour Service was a measure to recruit men aged between 18 and 25 and give them jobs. This was a form of rearmament that meant all men within this age group had to train for 6 months to prepare for being soldier - including living in a camp and doing military/physical exercise every day.
2. The Labour Front was established in place of trade unions: trade unions ensure that workers get fair wages and working conditions. Workers' trade unions were banned in 1933 and the Labour Front took its place, meaning every worker was all under one trade union. This meant that working hours were increased; wages were frozen and it was impossible for workers to show disapproval of this.
3. The Strenght Through Joy scheme was put into place in order to keep workers happy, providing them with cheap holidays and leisure activities. Its purpose was to keep rid of people's anger after the removal of trade unions, and to support the Führer and thank him. Only the rich could afford holidays in the past, so Strength Through Joy meant that social barriers were broken and it kept everybody satisfied.

Policies to reduce unemployment

Policies to reduce unemployment. 

1. Hitler started a large program in 1933 to reduce unemployment, giving jobs to thousands of people.
2. Thousands of jobs became available due to the huge motorways and hospitals that began construction in the following years. From 1933 onwards, unemployment began to drop significantly.
3. People were later encouraged to work in order to gain rewards. The Nazis introduced the "Strength through Joy" scheme, which provided workers with leisure activities and cheap holidays. Another notable scheme was the "Beauty of Labour" scheme, encouraging factory owners to improve working conditions for workers. 
4. Workers had to join the Nazi's Labour Front after trade unions were abolished by the government.
5. All German men between ages 18 and 25 had to be recruited into the Labour Service and given jobs, where they would train to be a soldier for 6 months and receive pocket money.
6. The German military was built up, and in 1935 military drafting began under Goering's newly-formed Luftwaffe (airforce). The intention was to raise the army from 100,000 to 300,000 men, and from 1935 onwards, men between 18-25 had to join the army. This made the original 100,000 army membership in 1933 skyrocket to 1,400,000 by 1939. 
7. In 1936, a Four-Year Plan was made to prepare the country for war. Workers had to retrain themselves for careers that would benefit the war effort, as part of the plan to make Germany self-sufficient, not relying on foreign goods.

Nazi policies towards women, the young, the Churches and the Jews

Nazi policies towards women, the young, the Churches and the Jews.

1. Nazis believed the a woman's role was staying at home and raising a family - they didn't want them to have too much freedom. Women existed to provide children. The Nazi idea that it was an honour to produce large families for Germany was spread by the League of German Maidens (read below) - Nazis even gave awards to women for doing this. Subjects like cookery were taught to girls at school. It was also stressed that they should choose "Aryan" husbands. The Nazis banned women from becoming lawyers in 1936 and did their best to stop them following other professions. The shortage of workers after 1937 meant that many women had to go back to work, though. Many Nazi men did not like this.
2. Hitler knew that loyalty from young people was crucial in order for the Nazis to remain strong. Boys aged 14 and above were recruited for the Hitler Youth, which was made compulsory in 1939. Girls aged 14 upwards joined the League of German Maidens. Boys would partake in lots of physical exercises and wore military-style uniforms, while girls were mainly trained for domestic skills like sewing. Boys were being prepared to be soldiers, the girls to be wives and mothers.
3. The Nazis saw the Church as a threat, many of them against Christianity - with its teachings of peace seen as incompatible with Nazi ideas. In 1933 Hitler signed an agreement with the Catholic Church - each side promised not to interfere with each other. Although, Nazis did still try to curb the Church's influence, and there were some Catholic protests against Nazi policies. Hitler tried to unite all of the different protestant churches into one Reich Church; Nazi Bishop Ludwig Müller was placed at its head. Some church members split off in protest at this state interference, forming the Confessing Church. Many clergy who stood up to the Nazi regime were sent to concentration camps.



Members of the League of German Maidens

4. Nazis believed that "Aryans" (white northern Europeans) were the master race and other ethnicities such as Jews, Romani or Russian people, were inferior. The Nazis blamed Jewish people for Germany's problems. Schools taught anti-Semitic values in school, and that World War 1 was lost because of the Jews (and communists). In universities, students burned anti-Nazi and Jewish books, and Jewish teachers were sacked. In 1935, the Nazis passed the Nuremberg Laws, effectively stopping Jews being German citizens; marriage was banned between Jews and non-Jews, and sexual relationships were banned between Jews and non-Jews