High-tech warfare

High-tech warfare.

1. The First Gulf War began the use of high-tech warfare, introducing laser-guided smart bombs - though were mainly defective, with only about 9% of the bombs used being smart bombs.
2. In terms of more modern high-tech warfare - it consists of mainly computerized and technical weapons e.g. night vision, drones and unmanned vehicles. This includes unmanned aerial vehicles, with high-quality cameras and extremely accurate missiles, fired from control stations.
3. Although there has been a lot of high-tech weapons made, with some deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan, it hasn't taken away from the importance and dependence of conventional weapons and ground troops in war, show by both the Gulf Wars.

Impact of terrorism, especially 9/11

Impact of terrorism, especially 9/11.

World Trade Center on September 11th 2001.

Terrorism greatly increased as a form of warfare following the middle of the twentieth century up until now. It is a strategic use of terror by the use of violent acts or coercion at targeted areas considered safe by the public. 9/11 is the most significant terrorist attack to this date and still has effects to this day. This attack triggered the "War on Terror", which included the invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban, known al-Qaeda sympathisers; and the Second Gulf War, as the US, among others, thought that Saddam Hussein supported al-Qaeda along with terrorism in general.

Continuing importance of conventional warfare

Continuing importance of conventional warfare.

Conventional warfare still played a role in 21st-century wars such as the Second Gulf War (March 20, 2003 - May 1, 2003), which was an invasion of Iraq by the US, backed by Britain, in 2003. The coalition victory (of US, UK, Australia etc.) was significant as it was due to the deployment of conventional forces and traditional tactics of the second half of the twentieth century. The coalition used air attacks to soften up the Iraqi resitance and support the invasion of land forces.

Emergence of submarines and military aircraft – fighter and bomber planes

Emergence of submarines and military aircraft – fighter and bomber planes.

1. First introduced in 1915, submarines were used a lot during WW1 and 2; U-boats were German submarines that were very effective, able to sink five British cruisers within 10 weeks and were responsible for the loss of 11 million tonnes of allied shipping during the War. Submarine warfare developed significantly during WW2, with the Allies having to adapt to Germany's effective strategies; the Germans used wolf-pack tactics (attacking in big groups) and the U-boats remained successful during early WW2, until.
2. WW1 introduced the first time that aircraft had been used on a large scale. Germany employed Zeppelins for strategic raids over England and the Eastern Front. Aircraft was even more decisive in WW2, with the introduction of Blitzkrieg tactics during the Invasion of Poland and Battle of France, where aircraft worked as flying artillery to quickly disrupt defensive formations.

Methods of warfare including gas, tanks and heavy artillery

Methods of warfare including gas, tanks and heavy artillery.

1. Tanks were introduced by the British during WW1 - hoping that they would be able to crush barbed wire and protect troops from machine gun fire. Tanks were heavily used during Blitzkrieg tactics, most notably by the Nazis, and helped Blitzkrieg become a completely unexpected and new form of warfare. They were the most significant weapon during the time and affected land warfare greatly, providing protection and confidence for troops and being able to travel through almost anything
2. Gas was used a lot during WW1; mostly mustard gas, chlorine, and phosgene. Mustard gas was the most effective, and after Germany had attempted with other gasses they realised that mustard gas was the hardest to detect, and so had the best effect on opponents. Burns from mustard gas were so bad that the result would mean that the soldier likely wouldn't be able to fight again - most of the mustard gas victims died after the attack from secondary infections. Gas was mainly used for physical harm as well as psychological effects, with soldiers always living in fear of a gas attack - only around 3,000 Brits actually died from gas attacks. 
3. Heavy artillery was very important in trench warfare, with infantry attacks rarely being successful if out of range of its artillery. Artillery was used to bombard the enemy infantry in the trenches - mainly firing high explosives, fragmentation, and sometimes gas shells. Heavy artillery was used to fight Blitzkrieg tactics against the Germans in WW2 - heavy guns were used to protect important harbours and coastal areas, usually unable to cope against modern warships and aircraft; the field gun was used by major armies, firing short but heavy shells.

The leisure industry, cinema, Jazz, dancing, sport, radio, advertising and motoring, morals and values and the ‘Monkey Trial’

The leisure industry, cinema, Jazz, dancing, sport, radio, advertising and motoring, morals and values and the ‘Monkey Trial’.

The leisure industry boomed in the 1920s, undergoing huge changes.

1. People simply had more money to spend on leisure during the 20s. Film became the standard form of entertainment across the country - making itself a multi-million dollar industry. Enormous movie theatres were built which could seat as many as 4,000 people. Movies were silent all the way up until the first "talking" picture was made in 1927. Hollywood was the major film-making centre.
2. Jazz music travelled across the US in the 1920s. The style originated from black people, who migrated from the South of the country to the North, spreading the music, as well as the dances (e.g. the Charleston) that came along with the genre - which many considered wild and untraditional. Jazz music began to sell in record form and was performed in clubs across the country, earning large amounts of money and symbolising a new era of freedom to many Americans.
3. Advertising became a huge industry, with billboards, newspapers and magazines spreading across the USA, with the advertisements urging people to spend their money on the newest products. Advertising was extremely successful as people were more willing to spend money at this time, and were more inclined to buy something more expensive due to hire purchase and good times for the economy. 
4. During the 1920s, six US states had banned the teaching of evolution in schools. One of these states was Tennessee, where biology teacher John Scopes taught his pupils the ideas behind evolution. Many Americans were very angry and launched an attack on Scopes and the ideas he taught - with books and publications about evolution eventually being banned in several states. The case went to court, ending up with Scopes being found guilty and fined $100, and with many people outside of the bible belt being shocked at the verdict and response.

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The methods and activities of Martin Luther King

The methods and activities of Martin Luther King.

1. King was influenced by Gandhi, who used non-violent civil disobedience against the British in India. He knew publicly, although non-violently calling the USA out on their hypocrisy would make them look bad.
2. His methods included picketing (standing outside a segregated establishment and telling people not to use it), boycotts, sit-ins, jail-ins (purposely getting arrested until the jails were completely full) and mass marches.
3. King was an influential speaker and was able to convince many people to join his cause because of this. MLK made sure that all of his supporters were non-violent at all times so that it was clear to the public as to who the victims were in the movement. All of his methods were legal.
4. Martin Luther King was one of the only Black leaders of the Civil Rights Movement that was able to appeal to White politicians due to his peaceful methods, and his success at making his opponents look bad and his supporters look good.
5. King was assassinated by a white gunman on April 4, 1968, sparking 100s of extremely violent protests across the US.

The decline of older industries

The decline of older industries.

1. Older industries suffered throughout the 1920s, especially the coal industry.
2. The coal industry suffered from competition with oil. This came from the motor industry, as cars began to take over as the new form of transportation, replacing trains, which was what a lot of coal was being used for. 10% less coal was mined in 1929 than in 1919. Technology was also being introduced that could replace workers, and remaining workers had decreased wages. Mining towns suffered the most from this.
3. The wool industry also collapsed. The most damaging part of this was when the boll weevil (cotton feeding beetle) destroyed 30% of cotton crops. After recovering in the mid-20s, the opposite, over-production, caused prices to drop dramatically.

Problems in farming, including over-production and mechanisation

Problems in farming, including over-production and mechanisation.

1. During the war, farmers became used to growing as many crops as possible. But during the 1920s, they grew more food than was needed (over-production), leading to falling prices and falling profits - which was also worsened by rising taxes, mortgages and wages.
2. Some other countries like the UK, Russia and Canada were able to recover from the war and become foreign competition for the US in terms of agriculture.
3. The Republican government didn't allow the government to buy up farmers' crops as President Coolidge thought it would encourage further over-production.
4. The US farm population began to shrink for the first time in history - not everyone was prospering in the 20s.

Hire purchase, consumerism and the popularity of the stock market

Hire purchase, consumerism and the popularity of the stock market.

1. Hire purchase is the system in which someone pays for regular instalments of something. It encouraged people to buy more luxury goods such as cars, as even average earners could buy them with credit, and weren't worried about having to keep up the payments because times were good. 
2. Consumerism is the culture around the buying and selling of products. This increased as Americans had more leisure time and were eager to spend money on the newest and most advertised products such as radios, telephones and washing machines.
3. The stock market boomed during the 1920s due to over 1 million Americans buying shares during the time. Before the Wall Street Crash when this was a bad thing, people were fully investing in the boom, and taking advantage of the production and consumption through shares.

Henry Ford and mass production

Henry Ford and mass production.

Henry Ford created the mass production car company, Ford, which introduced a new and efficient way of manufacturing.

1. Henry Ford's factories used the assembly line system, which divided manufacturing tasks among groups of workers spaced alongside a moving belt. This increased production efficiency, which, in turn, decreased car prices dramatically. 
2. Cars began to become much more affordable, with the standard model costing around $300 ($4000 today).
3. The jobs of 1 in 12 people were linked to car production, and, by 1929, there was once car for every five Americans.
4. Car production helped the economy greatly, and boosted other industries such as steel, petrol, chemical, glass and rubber industries.

Reasons for economic boom in the 1920s

Reasons for economic boom in the 1920s

There was a huge economic boom in the USA during the 1920s, with income and living standards rising, giving the period the name the "Roaring Twenties".

1. The rise of advertising brought more spending and became its own business, expanding to radio and movie ads.
2. Low unemployment, inflation and interest rates meant that people were more willing to spend.
3. Everyday items such as washing machines, TVs and refrigerators were now affordable for many people - bringing a consumer boom.
4. The Republican government reduced income tax and left people with more money to spend, contributing to prosperity.

Importance of aircraft in Arab-Israeli Wars and first Gulf War

Importance of aircraft in Arab-Israeli Wars and first Gulf War.

-The Six Day War 1967:

1. Air power proved to be decisive in the Six Day War. The eventual Israeli victory was mainly down to control of the air which, in turn, was due to the actions of the Israeli air force on the first day of the war (5th June 1967).
2. Although Israel's first and most critical attack was on Egyptian Air Force, which had by far a much more modern and large air force than other Arab air forces; Israel was able to catch them off-guard, with a surprise pre-emptive attack.
3. That afternoon, attacks on Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi air fields were carried out by Israel, wiping out most of those nations' air forces, with all of the Jordanian air force being wiped out by the end of the first day. Israeli Blitzkrieg tanks, supported by the air force, were then able to  carry out enemy attacks without fear from the air.
4. By the end of the six days (5-10 June), Israel had defeated their Arab neighbours using Blitzkrieg tactics from WW2, with more modern tanks and aircraft. The Israelis used speed and surprise, attacking without warning, equipped with the most up to date tanks supplied by the USA. They used careful planning which ensured control of the air and the effective use of tank warfare, ideal for areas of the Sinai and Golan Heights.

-The First Gulf War:

1. Stage 1 of the war was an air offensive against Iraq, launched on 16th January 1991, lasting nearly a month. In a short time, a variety of aircraft, including Stealth aircraft, cruise missiles and precision-guided weapons seriously damaged Iraq's military and economic structure.
2. Stage 2 was Operation Desert Saber which was launched 23rd February 1991. Land forces advanced into Kuwait and liberated the country within 4 days.
3. The air war began 17th January 1991, with the plan to carry out strategic bombing, gain air superiority, bomb the Iraq artillery, and then finally launch a ground offensive.
4. Weapons such as smart bombs were used, although they weren't overly accurate e.g. the F-117 had a hit rate of 55% while the older F-111 hit the target 70% of the time with laser guided bombs.
5. The most important part was the ground offensive - only ground forces can take and hold ground, although airpower was still vital in softening up Iraqi trenches and forces, it is nearly impossible to destroy an opponent without ground troops.
6. Complete air dominance, which is very rare, was soon won - even vulnerable aircraft were able to roam the air. This is what is called deep battle, where due to modern weapons with extended range, an attack does not just attack the enemy front lines, but his whole military organisations, his front, his art, his reserves and his C&C, without which his troops are blind and helpless.

The Battle of Britain, the Blitz, V weapons and the allied bombing of Germany

The Battle of Britain, the Blitz, V weapons and the allied bombing of Germany.

1. In June 1940, Germany attempted to invade Britain in the Battle of Britain. Air power was decisive in preventing the invasion, as the Luftwaffe (German air force) needed to gain control of the air over the English Channel and southern England in order to protect their sea power and make way for their landings. To do this they needed to destroy the RAF and other British airfields, which they weren't able to do. The British were able to win because they had plenty of factories to replace destroyed aircraft; the British radar was able to locate German attacks; they were fighting in their own territory, so surviving British pilots that were shot down could go back to war, but German pilots were arrested; the Germans decided to bomb British cities towards the end of the war, keeping the British' air control of the English Channel while the Germans were pre-occupied.
2. The Blitz was Germany's consistent air bombing campaign against Britain during WW2. The raids killed 43,000 civilians and lasted for 8 months, petering out when Hitler changed his focus towards his upcoming invasion of Russia in May 1941. It was described as the "Blitz" (lightning) because of the extremely heavy and relentless bombing raids that were carried out. The Battle of Britain wasn't going well for Germany before the Blitz, so they decided to rapidly attack British cities in an attempt to "soften up" the British people and destroy their confidence before Germany's full invasion - dropping over 5,000 tonnes of explosives on London within the first month. Between the month of September 1940 and May 1941, London was attacked 71 times, Birmingham, Liverpool, and Plymouth 8 times, Bristol 6, Glasgow 5, Southampton 4 and Portsmouth and Hull 3.
3. Although the Blitz had ended because of focus drifting to the Russian invasion, the British people ended up suffering through a second Blitz in the final war years, from V-1 and V-2 weapons. The V-1 was a flying bomb, and the V-2 a supersonic missile, which were both fired from Nazi-occupied Europe onto the south of England during 1944-45 and killed nearly 9,000 people. The V-2 was more dangerous than the V-1 because of its sheer speed, meaning that it couldn't be seen or tracked before it could be shot down. However, it was too late in the war for it to have any impact on war outcome. But, the V-1 was more cost effective, as it made the Allies spend heavily on defence and towards diverting the missiles.



Birmingham after an air raid.

4. German people still had hope and high spirits due to the Nazis pretending that they were winning the war through propaganda - the Allies wanted to end this. The Allies intensively bombed Germany's largest cities in May 1943, including Berlin, Cologne and Hamburg. Approximately 800,000 civilians were killed, and left many people fleeing to the countryside (village populations increased substantially), people sharing their homes, and opened German's eyes to see that they were losing the war. However, some of the bombing campaign has been criticized, as cities such as Dresden, with no military importance, were targeted - only further uniting the German people and rising determination.

Nuclear submarines

Nuclear submarines.

Nuclear submarines played a big part in the Cold War between the USA and USSR and underwent many changes in the years succeeding WW2.

1. The USA were the first to develop nuclear-powered submarines with the launch of the USS Nautilus in January 1952. The Soviets developed their own within the next ten years.
2. Nuclear submarines work on nuclear technology, unlike conventional diesel powered submarines. Because of this, they were armed with powerful WMD, and the development of cruise missiles gave nuclear submarines a long-range ability to attack both sea and land targets using weapons such as nuclear weapons and cluster bombs.
3. Disadvantages of nuclear submarines include dangers of operating them, especially for long periods of time under the ocean: in 1963, the US Navy lost 16 officers, 96 enlisted men and 21 civilians on board the USS Thresher after the captain reported having problems.
4. But, they have many advantages over the conventional diesel submarines, ranging from the fact that they rarely need refueling, and can run at high speeds for a very long time because of the huge power generated by the nuclear reactor; they can force and enemy to waste their resources due to how long they can last and how powerful and strong they are.

The development of the aircraft carrier and its importance in the War in the Pacific 1941-45 and the Falklands War

The development of the aircraft carrier and its importance in the War in the Pacific 1941-45 and the Falklands War.

1. The aircraft carrier began development during early WW2 when the British used the Swordfish aircraft carrier against the Italians in the Battle of Taranto, damaging three Italian battleships and ending Italian naval power. The Japanese observed this and used similar tactics at Pearl Harbor over a year later. In the later 1940s, the slanted deck was introduced, giving carriers two runways from which to conduct operations. The first nuclear carrier, USS Enterprise, was launched in 1961.
2. The War in the Pacific, a war between the USA and Japan, proved the importance of aircraft carriers in naval conflicts. Control of the pacific area was dependent on the air, which, in turn, meant that the side that used their aircraft carrier fleet more effectively gained the advantage. 
3. The Falkland Wars in 1982 was a war between the UK and Argentina which began when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands. The war relied heavily on sea power and used two aircraft carriers, Invincible and Hermes, which both served as floating airfields and helped the British aircraft make quick escapes back to safety. The carriers also protected the landings of the British troops when they landed on the invaded islands. The British nuclear submarine, HMS Conquerer, sank the Argentinian cruiser General Belgrano, forcing the Argentine Navy to withdraw for the most part.

The Battle of the Atlantic and developments in U-boat warfare

The Battle of the Atlantic and developments in U-boat warfare.

German U-boat

1. The Battle of the Atlantic was a long battle lasting throughout the majority of the Second World War between the Allies and Germany.
2. Germans very effectively used U-boat warfare throughout the years 1939-42, giving them the upper-hand, sinking 1000 ships and a quarter of Britain's merchant fleet by 1940. By January 1943, the navy only had two months worth of oil supplies left.
3. The Germans used "wolf pack" tactics. They had cracked the Allies' code so were able to wait with U-boats for Atlantic convoys to arrive, attacking in numbers. The British weren't able to effectively counteract these U-boat attacks and used out-of-date escort vessels.
4. Air coverage of the Atlantic was successful in terms of attacking U-boats, but it could only stretch so far across the huge Atlantic, leaving a gap in the Atlantic ocean without air coverage, where lots of the U-boat attacks took place.
5. U-boats were able to remain undetected by ASDIC -the British anti-submarine device - which relied on soundwaves travelling through the ocean. This was because the Germans attacked at the surface and at night. But, the entry of the USA into the war in 1941 meant that U-boat commanders had many more targets.
6. Churchill began putting priority towards destroying U-boats during 1942, resulting in more U-boats being sunk and reducing Allied shipping losses. Between June-December 1943, the Germans lost 141 U-boats whilst the Allies only lost 57 ships. Admiral Donitz, the German U-boat commander, was unable to replace the sunken U-boats and, in March 1944, called off The Battle of the Atlantic.
7. The Allies were able to gain success by using long range aircraft to protect convoys; decoding German radio messages and being able to tell where U-boat packs would be; improved training for convoys and getting better escort vessels; the Americans were able to build ships faster than the Germans could sink them.

The growth of opposition to Hitler including the Edelweiss Pirates, the White Rose Group and the Stauffenberg Plot

The growth of opposition to Hitler including the Edelweiss Pirates, the White Rose Group and the Stauffenberg Plot.

1. The Edelweiss Pirates were a group of rebellious young people that were hard to control as they weren't a single organisation with clear leaders. They had sprung up in Germany during the 1930s, with different groups of them having their own names, including Navajos and the Roving Dudes. They rejected Nazi values and hated being told what to do. They purposely avoided joining the Hitler Youth and some members deliberately got into fights with the Hitler Youth. During the 1940s, they started distributing anti-Nazi leaflets, and also helping army deserters, forced labourers and escaped concentration camp prisoners. But, the Nazis eventually tracked down the groups. Many were arrested, and in 1944, several members were publicly hanged in Cologne.
2. The White Rose Group opposed the Nazis and was led by students from Munich University between the years 1942-43. Among the leaders were siblings Hans and Sophie Scholl. The group protested against Nazi prosecution and discrimination of minorities. Some of the members had taken part in the war and were horrified by German atrocities, including the mass murder of Jews. They used peaceful/non-violent methods and distributed anti-Nazi leaflets to encourage opposition. The group were caught and arrested by the Gestapo and several members, including Hans and Sophie Scholl, were tortured and executed.
3. The Stauffenberg Plot was a bomb plot attempt to kill Hitler. Towards the end of the war, some of the German military were unhappy with Hitler's leadership, believing he would lead Germany to defeat. Claus von Stauffenberg, along with other German officers, made a plan to kill Hitler. Their aim was to kill Hitler and install a non-radical government, including members of the Kreisau Circle. The attempt was on the 20th July 1944; Stauffenberg put a bomb in a briefcase and left it in a meeting room by Hitler's chair. However, someone moved the briefcase, and Hitler was unharmed by the explosion. Most of plotters, including Stauffenberg, were then captured and executed.

The changing role of women, ‘total war’, rationing and the effects of allied bombing

The changing role of women, ‘total war’, rationing and the effects of allied bombing.

1. The Nazis wanted women's roles to change. They tried to increase the birth rate (without success) and encourage more women to go out and work (also without much success). This was the opposite of what the Nazis had been portraying through propaganda in the 1930s: women now wanted to stay at home, not work. In 1943, the Nazis tried to force 3 million German women to work, but only 1 million did - which ended up being one of the reasons for the German war defeat.
2. "Total war" was what happened when it became clear to the German people that the country did not have a guaranteed triumph in the war. Every single aspect of the German economy was then put towards the war effort - this meant that there was no longer everyday things in Germany like sweet shops; magazines and professional sports. All shops that were open were there to help the war effort, with working hours being increased and more women working in factories.
3. Rationing began at the beginning of the war, and it affected everyday life for German civilians. Only food and clothes were rationed early on in 1939, and even then it was still easy to acquire them as Germany was winning the war at the time. But, by 1942, Germans were living off a lot less that British people. Rations became increasingly scarce, and included things such as bread, potatoes and vegetables. It eventually became almost impossible to buy new clothes or shoes.
4. German people still had hope and high spirits due to the Nazis pretending that they were winning the war through propaganda - the Allies wanted to end this. The Allies intensively bombed Germany's largest cities in May 1943, including Berlin, Cologne and Hamburg. Approximately 800,000 civilians were killed, and left many people fleeing to the countryside (village populations increased substantially), people sharing their homes, and opened German's eyes to see that they were losing the war. German support began to weaken, especially in villages.

Nazi policies towards the Jews including ghettos, death squads and the Final Solution

Nazi policies towards the Jews including ghettos, death squads and the Final Solution.

1. More and more Jews came under German control during World War 2 - and from 1940, Jewish people were to move into ghettos, which were separate districts of cities policed by armed guards in a walled in area. Ghetto conditions were terrible, and starvation and disease killed thousands.
2. During Germany's invasion of Russia in 1941, soldiers were ordered to kill every Jew they found in Russian towns and villages. Following the invasion, Nazi death squads, called "Einsatzgruppen", murdered more than a million Jews in eastern Europe.
3. The Final Solution was a plan by the Nazis that began in 1942, as a resort to destroy the Jewish people. This entailed death camps being built in Eastern Europe, and gas chambers included to achieve mass murder. Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, was in overall charge of this "final solution".
4. Some of these death camps were: Auschwitz, Treblinka, Sobibor, Chelmno and Belzec.
5. By the end of the war, it is estimated that 6 million Jewish people had been killed by the Nazis.
6. Other groups that were also targeted during this time were Slavs, Romani people, black people, homosexuals, disabled people and communists - approximately 200,000 Romani people and 200,000 disabled people were killed during this time.

The Labour Service, the Labour Front and Strength Through Joy

The Labour Service, the Labour Front and Strength Through Joy.

1. The Labour Service was a measure to recruit men aged between 18 and 25 and give them jobs. This was a form of rearmament that meant all men within this age group had to train for 6 months to prepare for being soldier - including living in a camp and doing military/physical exercise every day.
2. The Labour Front was established in place of trade unions: trade unions ensure that workers get fair wages and working conditions. Workers' trade unions were banned in 1933 and the Labour Front took its place, meaning every worker was all under one trade union. This meant that working hours were increased; wages were frozen and it was impossible for workers to show disapproval of this.
3. The Strenght Through Joy scheme was put into place in order to keep workers happy, providing them with cheap holidays and leisure activities. Its purpose was to keep rid of people's anger after the removal of trade unions, and to support the Führer and thank him. Only the rich could afford holidays in the past, so Strength Through Joy meant that social barriers were broken and it kept everybody satisfied.

Policies to reduce unemployment

Policies to reduce unemployment. 

1. Hitler started a large program in 1933 to reduce unemployment, giving jobs to thousands of people.
2. Thousands of jobs became available due to the huge motorways and hospitals that began construction in the following years. From 1933 onwards, unemployment began to drop significantly.
3. People were later encouraged to work in order to gain rewards. The Nazis introduced the "Strength through Joy" scheme, which provided workers with leisure activities and cheap holidays. Another notable scheme was the "Beauty of Labour" scheme, encouraging factory owners to improve working conditions for workers. 
4. Workers had to join the Nazi's Labour Front after trade unions were abolished by the government.
5. All German men between ages 18 and 25 had to be recruited into the Labour Service and given jobs, where they would train to be a soldier for 6 months and receive pocket money.
6. The German military was built up, and in 1935 military drafting began under Goering's newly-formed Luftwaffe (airforce). The intention was to raise the army from 100,000 to 300,000 men, and from 1935 onwards, men between 18-25 had to join the army. This made the original 100,000 army membership in 1933 skyrocket to 1,400,000 by 1939. 
7. In 1936, a Four-Year Plan was made to prepare the country for war. Workers had to retrain themselves for careers that would benefit the war effort, as part of the plan to make Germany self-sufficient, not relying on foreign goods.

Nazi policies towards women, the young, the Churches and the Jews

Nazi policies towards women, the young, the Churches and the Jews.

1. Nazis believed the a woman's role was staying at home and raising a family - they didn't want them to have too much freedom. Women existed to provide children. The Nazi idea that it was an honour to produce large families for Germany was spread by the League of German Maidens (read below) - Nazis even gave awards to women for doing this. Subjects like cookery were taught to girls at school. It was also stressed that they should choose "Aryan" husbands. The Nazis banned women from becoming lawyers in 1936 and did their best to stop them following other professions. The shortage of workers after 1937 meant that many women had to go back to work, though. Many Nazi men did not like this.
2. Hitler knew that loyalty from young people was crucial in order for the Nazis to remain strong. Boys aged 14 and above were recruited for the Hitler Youth, which was made compulsory in 1939. Girls aged 14 upwards joined the League of German Maidens. Boys would partake in lots of physical exercises and wore military-style uniforms, while girls were mainly trained for domestic skills like sewing. Boys were being prepared to be soldiers, the girls to be wives and mothers.
3. The Nazis saw the Church as a threat, many of them against Christianity - with its teachings of peace seen as incompatible with Nazi ideas. In 1933 Hitler signed an agreement with the Catholic Church - each side promised not to interfere with each other. Although, Nazis did still try to curb the Church's influence, and there were some Catholic protests against Nazi policies. Hitler tried to unite all of the different protestant churches into one Reich Church; Nazi Bishop Ludwig Müller was placed at its head. Some church members split off in protest at this state interference, forming the Confessing Church. Many clergy who stood up to the Nazi regime were sent to concentration camps.



Members of the League of German Maidens

4. Nazis believed that "Aryans" (white northern Europeans) were the master race and other ethnicities such as Jews, Romani or Russian people, were inferior. The Nazis blamed Jewish people for Germany's problems. Schools taught anti-Semitic values in school, and that World War 1 was lost because of the Jews (and communists). In universities, students burned anti-Nazi and Jewish books, and Jewish teachers were sacked. In 1935, the Nazis passed the Nuremberg Laws, effectively stopping Jews being German citizens; marriage was banned between Jews and non-Jews, and sexual relationships were banned between Jews and non-Jews

Setting up the Nazi dictatorship through the Reichstag Fire, Enabling Act, Night of the Long Knives, the police state, censorship and propaganda

Setting up the Nazi dictatorship through the Reichstag Fire, Enabling Act, Night of the Long Knives, the police state, censorship and propaganda.

The Schutzstaffel (SS)

• The Nazis began to gain many votes, but they used cunning tactics to get them.

1. In 1933, a fire broke out in the Reichstag building. Hitler blamed it on the Communists, claiming they had started it. Many people believed him, and mass arrests of Communists started, starting a huge opposition to the German Communist Party.
2. The Nazis won 288 seats in 1933. This wasn't a majority, though, and the Communists still won 81 - so, as Hitler was Chancellor, he was able to declare the Communist Party illegal. Hitler was then able to get enough support to pass the Enabling Act from this, in March 1933. This bill allowed him to govern for four years without parliament and made all other parties illegal - giving him almost full control.
3. Although he had a lot of power, Hitler still had a lot of opposition, and was worried about rivals within the Nazi party - the biggest threat being Ernst Röhm, the controller of the SA (including over 400,000 men). On 29th-30th of June 1934, Hitler sent his men to arrest Röhm and others. The night became known as the "Night of the Long Knives". Röhm, along with several hundred other people and oppositions such as Strasser and von Schleicher, were killed, stamping out any remaining opposition. President Hindenburg died a month later. This gave Hitler the combination of Chancellor and President posts, and he made himself Commander-in-Cheif of the army - from then on called Der Führer (the leader). It was the beginning of dictatorship.
4. Germany became a police state. The SS (Schutzstaffel) expanded hugely under Himmler in the 1930s, working as a bodyguard for Hitler. Its members were feared by the public for their cruelty and were completely loyal to Hitler. Himmler was also in charge of the secret police - the Gestapo. After 1933, concentration camps spread across Germany to hold political prisoners and anybody else considered dangerous to the Nazis, with some later turning into death camps. People were encouraged to report disloyalty to the Nazi party, and local wardens were employed to make sure that Germans were loyal. Many were arrested by the Gestapo as a result.
5. Books, newspapers and other materials were censored by the Nazis, and those who published anti-Nazi material risked execution. The Nazis used censorship to encourage nationalism and anti-Semitism, praising the work of patriotic composers such as Wagner, while banning the work of Jewish composers like Mendelssohn.
6. Propaganda took over the media, with the Nazis blaming Jews and communists for most of Germany's problems in an attempt to control how people think. They controlled radio broadcasts and used films and posters to spread their message. Dr Joseph Goebbels founded the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda in 1933, making all artists, writers, journalists and musicians having to register to get their work approved. The Nazis also organised huge rallies to present an image of power and popularity to the public - the 1936 Olympics were used as an opportunity for global publicity too.

Events of 1932 to January 1933 including the role of von Papen, von Schleicher and von Hindenburg

Events of 1932 to January 1933 including the role of von Papen, von Schleicher and von Hindenburg.

• Hindenburg refused to give the Nazis power.

Paul von Hindenburg

1. Hindenburg couldn't find a Chancellor who had support in the Reichstag.
2. He ended up appointing the inexperienced Franz von Papen, refusing to give the Nazis power.
3. In the July 1932 Reichstag elections, the Nazis won 230 seats - they were the largest party but didn't have a majority in the Reichstag. Hitler demanded to be made Chancellor.
4. Hindenburg didn't trust Hitler. He refused to make him Chancellor and kept Papen.
5. The Nazis lost 34 seats in the November 1932 election. They seemed to be losing popularity.
6. Hindenburg got rid of Papen, replaced by Kurt von Schleicher as Chancellor. Schleicher tried to cause divisions in the Nazi party by asking another leading Nazi to be Vice-Chancellor: Gregor Strasser. But Hitler stopped Strasser from accepting.
7. Papen knew that Hindenburg would get rid Schleicher if he didn't get a majority in parliament, so he made a deal with Hitler. They agreed that if Papen persuaded Hindenburg to make Hitler Chancellor, Hitler would make Papen Vice-Chancellor.
8. In January 1933, Papen persuaded Hindenburg to make Hitler Chancellor. Papen argued that they could control Hitler and use him as a puppet. He was wrong.

Goebbels and propaganda and the work of the SA

Goebbels and propaganda and the work of the SA.

• The Nazis used many methods to control the German people - from persuasion to violence.

"Work Means Bread"

1. The Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda (founded in 1933) was led by Dr Joseph Goebbels. All writers, journalists and musicians had to work to get their work approved.
2. The Nazis took control of the media - controlling radio broadcasts, and also used films and posters to spread their messages.
3. The Nazis organised huge rallies of party members to present an image of power and popularity. They also used the 1936 Berlin Olympics as an opportunity for international publicity.
4. Nazis censored books, newspapers and other material.
5. Those that published anti-Nazi material were put at risk of execution.
6. They used censorship to encourage nationalism and anti-Semitism. E.g. they praised the work of German patriots such as Wagner, but banned the work of Jewish composers such as Mendelssohn.
7. Bright and fierce posters were used repeat Hitler's ideas and attract people's attention.
8. The impressive power of the SA and SS led more people towards the Nazi's side.
9. The radio and newspapers began to cover all the same news in the same way, featuring all the same opinions. It was hard for the population to not start thinking this way after a while.

Nazi methods to win support

Nazi methods to win support.

1. Nazi policies were deliberately vague in order to attract as many people as possible, including both left and right-wing Germans. They promised different things to different groups of people: Industrialists: Crush the Communists; Working class: Food and jobs; Everybody: Restore German greatness, mainly by overthrowing and humiliating the Treaty of Versailles.
2. The Nazis used propaganda. They used leaflets, posters, SA parades, Nazi newspapers etc. All this served to effectively spread Nazi ideas and weaken support for their rivals.
3. Hitler's powerful speeches exploited people's fears of Communism, unemployment and prejudice (Jews). In his speeches, Hitler promised the German people a new beginning, and to make Germany great again.
4. The Nazis were able to make themselves look more efficient and put-together than other parties, mainly due to the strong impression of the SA (uniforms, throwing big parades in which leader delivered powerful speeches), impressive poster portrayals of the party, and generally fewer impressive democratic competitors.
5. The SA terrorised their opponents, and would break up opposition party meetings during elections, destroy printing presses and spread Nazi propaganda.
6. A large number of the German people were scared of Communism and were persuaded by the Nazi's promises to crush the German Communist Party.

Impact of Wall Street Crash

Impact of Wall Street Crash.

• Nazi popularity soared as a result of the great depression (stemming from the Wall Street Crash).

1. The Depression caused mass unemployment, with over 6 million Germans unemployed by the year 1933.
2. In 1931, Germany's biggest bank collapsed - which made reparations even more difficult to pay.
3. The Weimar governments kept trying to change during this time in order to solve the economic problems, but none ever succeeded.
4. The Depression contributed to the collapse of the Weimar Republic in 1933. The German public hoped for a new government that could sort out these problems.
5. Extremist groups like the Nazis became more popular - they promised strong leadership.
6. There was huge outrage towards the Weimar Republic; working class were angry with their low wages and long hours; general population angry at low employment and families were desperate, many living in tents.
7. The Nazis increased in popularity during the Depression. They promised prosperity and to make Germany great again. They appealed to many Germans, including the unemployed, as well as businessmen and young people.
8. Some people supported the Nazis' anti-communist and anti-Jewish views - and by 1930, the Nazis grew to a membership of 300,000.

Reorganisation of the Party 1924-28

Reorganisation of the Party 1924-28.

1. The Nazi Party was banned after the Munich Putsch. Hitler re-established the party after he was released from prison, and made himself the supreme leader.
2. By the 1920s, the German economy was beginning to stabilise and recover thanks to the work of Stresemann. As a result, support for the Nazi party declined and overturning the government through a coup no longer seem realistic. 
3. Hitler began to change tactics - he now tried to gain control through the democratic system. The Nazi party network began to extend nationwide, instead of being a regional party. Propaganda was used to promote the party's beliefs.
4. The party was relaunched in 1925, with improved finances by befriending wealthy businessmen.
5. Even with this, the Nazis still didn't have many supporters at this stage. There were fewer than 30,000 members by 1925, and the Nazis had 12 seats in the 1928 elections, compared to the 54 communists and 153 social democrats. This was soon to change, though.

Causes, events and results of Munich Putsch, 1923

Causes, events and results of Munich Putsch, 1923.

1. Things weren't looking good for the Weimar Republic in 1923 - it seemed weak.
2. Hitler and the Nazis planned to overthrow the Weimar Republic, beginning with taking over taking control of a southern region of Germany called Bavaria.
3. On the 8th November 1923, Hitlers stormtroopers occupied the beer hall in Munich in which government leaders were meeting. He announced that the revolution had begun.
4. On the next day, Hitler, supported by thousands of armed men marched into Munich. The revolt quickly collapsed, though, when police fired on the rebels.
5. The number of people involved, including the famous general Ludendorff, made it seem like a big threat to Weimar, but the Nazis actually had very little public support and it was all over very quickly.
6. Hitler was then imprisoned for his role in the Munich Putsch (aka Beer Hall Putsch). In prison, he wrote a book called "Mein Kampf" ("My Struggle"), in which Hitler described his beliefs and ambitions.

Changes to the party 1920-22

Changes to the party 1920-22.

1. In the 1920s, the German Workers' Party changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazis).
2. Hitler took over party leadership due to his reputation as a charismatic speaker and attracting new members.
3. The party set up its own armed group called the SA - brown-shirted stormtroopers that protected Nazi leaders and harassed their opponents. 

Hitler and the German Workers’ Party

Hitler and the German Workers’ Party.

• Adolf Hitler left WWI disillusioned and bitter. He felt the war had ended too soon and the Weimar Republic had sold Germny out by agreeing to the Treaty of Versailles - sharing the same view as most Germans at the time.

1. Hitler was born in 1889 in Austria, living in Germany from 1912 onwards. He was a brave soldier in WW1, winning the Iron Cross twice - he was very angry about Germany losing the war.
2. He became attracted to the German Workers' Party's founder's (Anton Drexler) anti-Semitic, nationalist, anti- capitalist and anti-Marxist ideas after monitoring the party.
3. In 1919, Hitler joined the small political party in Munich, known as the German Workers' Party. He was only a tiny part when he first joined - the 55th member.

Guerrilla warfare especially in Vietnam and Afghanistan

Guerrilla warfare especially in Vietnam and Afghanistan. 

• Guerilla warfare is used when small military units want to avoid open battle with a larger, better-armed opponent - involving tactics such as raids and ambushes.

1. The Vietcong, the main fighting force against the USA in the Vietnam War (Nov. 1st 1955-Apr. 30th 1975), were very experienced in guerilla warfare. They were supported by the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) - but they weren't a trained army. They weren't as well armed as US troops, but they turned out to be tough enemy to fight.
2. Guerilla warfare is what the Vietcong hoped would exhaust the US troops, lower their confidence, encourage desertion and encourage South Vietnamese soldiers to defect. The Vietcong wanted the Americans to leave so that they could unify Vietnam as an independent country.

-The Vietcong used a number of guerilla tactics that made fighting them very difficult:

1. They launched surprise attacks on the US and worked in small groups. They knew the land very well, so they could choose when and where to attack.
2. They placed hidden traps in the jungle to kill/injure US soldiers. For example, explosives triggered by tripwires and covered pits filled with bamboo spikes.
3. They hid in underground tunnels. These tunnel systems were very complex, and some even had army barracks and hospitals.
4. They blended in easily with Vietnamese villagers. This made it difficult for the US troops to identify Vietcong soldiers.
5. The Vietcong often returned to areas where the US had driven them out. American troops seemed to be making little progress.
6. Americans troops became paranoid that they would be killed by booby traps, or that a surprise ambush was incoming - they had no experience with guerilla warfare.

-Soviet-Afghan War (1979-89):

1. Afghans began to use very similar tactics that Vietcong used in the Vietnam War.
2. Russian troops were prepared for large attacks against a similar opponent, instead they got small and sporadic guerilla attacks.
3. Guerilla fighters were able to slip in and out of neigbouring Iran, where they were re-supplid by fellow muslims who sympathized with their stuggle.

The importance of Arab-Israeli conflicts and the first Gulf War

The importance of Arab-Israeli conflicts and the first Gulf War.

• The creation of Israel was not accepted by its Arab neighbours, leading to a series of conflicts.

-The Six Day War 1967:

1. In 1967, Israel launched an attack on her Arab neighbours, claiming that they were about to attack her. The outcome was a resounding Israeli victory.
2. Ever since this victory, the status of Gaza, the West Bank and Jerusalem has remained hotly disputed between Arabs and Israelis. 
3. Air power proved to be decisive in the Six Day War. The eventual Israeli victory was mainly down to control of the air which, in turn, was due to the actions of the Israeli air force on the first day of the war (5th June 1967).
4. Although Israel's first and most critical attack was on Egyptian Air Force, which had by far a much more modern and large air force than other Arab air forces; Israel was able to catch them off-guard, with a surprise pre-emptive attack.
5. That afternoon, attacks on Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi air fields were carried out by Israel, wiping out most of those nations' air forces, with all of the Jordanian air force being wiped out by the end of the first day. Israeli Blitzkrieg tanks, supported by the air force, were then able to  carry out enemy attacks without fear from the air.
6. By the end of the six days (5-10 June), Israel had defeated their Arab neighbours using Blitzkrieg tactics from WW2, with more modern tanks and aircraft. The Israelis used speed and surprise, attacking without warning, equipped with the most up to date tanks supplied by the USA. They used careful planning which ensured control of the air and the effective use of tank warfare, ideal for areas of the Sinai and Golan Heights.

-The War of Yom Kippur 1973:

1. In this battle, the Arab states were successful at first but were later defeated by Israel. The early success of this was also to do with the surprise of the attack; Egyptian and Syrian forces attacked Israeli forces in the Sinai and on the Golan Heights on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur (hence the name), inflicting heavy losses to the Israelis.
2. Egyptian and Syrian forces attacked Israel on this day, 6th October 1973, knowing that the military of Israel would be participating in religious celebrations for Yom Kippur, therefore, their guard would be temporarily dropped.
3. Other Arab nations aided the Egyptians and Syrians - with Iraq sending a squadron of Hunter jet fighters planes to Egypt a few months before the war; 18,000 Iraqi soldiers were sent in, along with Russian-built MIG fighters used against Israel in the Golan Heights. Tunisia, Sudan and Morocco were also involved in the war.
4. Saudi Arabia and Kuwait effectively funded the war for the Arabs.
5. Facing such a huge attack, Israel was overwhelmed. With Egyptian forces crossing the Suez Canal moving 15 miles inland, and Syrian troops advancing the same distance all within two days, it wasn't looking good for Israel.
6. However, on October 8th, Israeli forces were able to counter-attack in the Sinai, with the help of called-up reserves. They were able to push Egyptians back and cross the Suez Canal, getting within 65 miles of Cairo. They also had success in the Golan Heights with Syrian troops, pushing them back and reclaiming lost land, getting within 35 miles of the Syrian capital.
7. The United Nations were able to organise a cease-fire on October 24th. Israel was able to keep their over the Sinai Desert, with UN troops sent to the Golan Heights to keep peace - forming a buffer zone between Israel and Syria.

-The First Gulf War:

1. In 1990, Saddam Hussein, dictator of Iraq, invaded the oil-rich state of Kuwait. Sadam had not expected that the USA would object the invasion as he was a former ally of America. However, the USA supported by the UK and other countries launched Operation Desert Shield to force Saddam out of Kuwait. 
2. Stage 1 was an air offensive against Iraq, launched on 16th January 1991, lasting nearly a month. In a short time, a variety of aircraft, including Stealth aircraft, cruise missiles and precision-guided weapons seriously damaged Iraq's military and economic structure.
3. Stage 2 was Operation Desert Saber which was launched 23rd February 1991. Land forces advanced into Kuwait and liberated the country within 4 days.
4. The air war began 17th January 1991, with the plan to carry out strategic bombing, gain air superiority, bomb the Iraq artillery, and then finally launch a ground offensive.
5. Weapons such as smart bombs were used, although they weren't overly accurate e.g. the F-117 had a hit rate of 55% while the older F-111 hit the target 70% of the time with laser guided bombs.
6. The most important part was the ground offensive - only ground forces can take and hold ground, although airpower was still vital in softening up Iraqi trenches and forces, it is nearly impossible to destroy an opponent without ground troops.
7. Complete air dominance, which is very rare, was soon won - even vulnerable aircraft were able to roam the air. This is what is called deep battle, where due to modern weapons with extended range, an attack does not just attack the enemy front lines, but his whole military organisations, his front, his art, his reserves and his C&C, without which his troops are blind and helpless.